A critical analysis of the contingency theory and the matrix organizational structure by looking into how contingency theory can be implemented using the matrix organization structure.
Abstract This essay analyzes what the contingency theory is; what the basic features of contingency theory are and which are the main contingencies which affect the structure or design of an organization. It also discusses the main criticisms against or disadvantages of the contingency theory and the relation between contingency theory and matrix organization. It asks how the contingency theory can be practically applied through a matrix organisation. The paper then defines matrix organization and specifies its different forms, while looking at its advantages and the disadvantages.
From the Paper "What must be the ideal structure of an organisation? This is a question which great management thinkers from Adam Smith to Argyris and Weber to Woodward tried to answer. But none of them was able to give a perfect answer. Be it be the Classical Approach or the Human relations one, the Systems Approach or the most modern Contingency Approach none of these theories were fully correct and none was able to give a one best universal structure of organisation. In reality it is not possible too. The Contingency Theorists were the first to project this fact."
Tags: advantage, approach, management, overlay, systems, thinking, thought
Abstract This paper explains that contingency theory assumes that the successful management of an organization depends on, or is contingent to, the environment in which it performs; every decision, which managers undertake in order to achieve the organizational goals, is influenced by the specific environment. The author points out that differentiation and integration in the organizational structure are contingent on contextual factors such as size and technology of the organization and external factors such as its market with its competitors, customers, suppliers, stakeholders and the environment. The paper relates that contingency thinking affects leadership because leadership implies that managers need a certain degree of power and control in order to exert influence on their followers.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Contribution of Contingency Thinking on the Knowledge of Management
Contingency Thinking and Organizational Design
Environment
Technology
Size
Contingency Thinking and Leadership
Conclusion
From the Paper "The contingency approach on organizational design is of great importance as it was this field of management whose detailed research led to the foundations of general contingency thinking. Organizational design, often referred to as organizational structure is regarded as the key to good organizational performance. Like the classical management view it also assumes that organizational "performance and structure are inextricably linked" (Fincham, et al., 1999:355). The main difference between both ways of thinking, however, is that classical management research tried to find the most efficient structure for universal use, i.e. a structure appropriate for every kind of environment. Max Weber, for example, defined bureaucracy as the most efficient mean for managing an organization. His theory was characterized by job specialization, strict hierarchy, plenty of rules and much impersonality."
Abstract This paper discusses the practicality of using the contingency theory as a management theory. The paper describes the contingency theory and when it would be useful and work well for use by a manager. The paper presents the advantages and disadvantages of the contingency theory and concludes that flexibility of leadership style is what primarily remains a key ingredient to management success.
Table of Contents:
Contingency Theory as Management Theory
Change Management Initiatives and Contingency Theory
Cost Efficacy
Recommendations
From the Paper "Contingency theory can provide a platform or paradigm for successful leadership, particularly in the global marketplace where the market remains volatile and ever changing. Given the right circumstances this style of leadership can help promote cost reduction if it takes into consideration the environmental and situational factors that drive organizational performance. However, there may be cases where a proven management or leadership style is more apt to facilitate communication and greater response rates. This is something that organizations must consider when evaluating the pros and cons of a particular management theory."
Abstract This paper explores four major types of management planning - operational planning, tactical planning, strategic planning and contingency planning. It uses Allstate Insurance Company's management planning as an example. The paper then explains the impact of legal issues, ethics and corporate social responsibility on management planning in an organization.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Planning Function of Management
The Impact of Legal Issues, Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility on Management Planning
Factors That Influence Allstate's Strategic, Operational, Tactical and Contingency Planning
Conclusion
From the Paper "Successful companies and organizations do not spring up overnight and they are certainly not successful by accident. Planning is becoming increasingly important in today's work environment particularly with the advancement of technology and the competitive nature of business. Companies and organizations rely on planning to shape not only their futures but nearly every aspect of their business. The complexity of planning only increases when companies must pay mind to legal issues, ethics and social corporate responsibility. The public has demonstrated that not only do they want a quality product at an affordable rate but they want their companies to practice ethically and be socially cognitive of the communities that they do their business in."
Abstract This essay explains the contingent leadership model and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The paper examines the controversy surrounding this model and challenges the Myers-Briggs Indicator and how it is used to match a leader to the situation. The paper also examines the 9-11 tragedy as a a tool for analyzing how leaders can rise to the occasion and lead effectively in a given situation. The paper then uses the example of nursing leadership, as it relates to patient care, discussing the nurse's necessity to adapt their leadership skills to the situation.
Table of Contents
Contingent Leadership
The Problem
The Issue
Leadership Styles
The Controversy
Current Leadership Trend
The Leaders Role
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "There is fault with this theory because as a society and in many organizations our leadership structure is one of "Commander and Chief" and does not match leadership to a given situation. Through out history we can point to many leaders that have had to adapt and lead despite their leadership style not matching the given situation. Leadership requires one to utilize knowledge, skills and abilities in fulfillment of an assigned leadership role. We expect and demand those in leadership to lead when the situation calls for it. If this theory is absolute then we would have to accept that one can not learn and grow as a leader. More importantly it would limit you to situations that match your skill set. So, instead of expecting you to lead in various situations you would need to be matched the situation."
A discussion regarding the famous American phrase "Will it play in Peoria?" in relation to 'Contingent Work, Disrupted Lives: Labour and Community in the New Rural Economy'.
2,250 words (approx. 9 pages), 3 sources, 2005, $ 89.95
Abstract This paper discusses Anthony Winson's and Belinda Leach's 'Contingent Work, Disrupted Lives: Labour and Community in the New Rural Economy' in relation to one of the most famous sayings in American history - "Will it play in Peoria?" According to this paper, this saying is rooted in the belief that small-scale local culture offer crucial insights into policies and products for the broader society. The paper further discusses how the origins of this commonly used phrase, is based on the practice of American musical theatre "trying out" acts in small towns like Peoria, Illinois, before moving to large cities like New York. This paper shows how this famous phrase is of direct relevance to understanding the significance of Winson's and Leach's work.
Abstract This paper reviews the book 'Contingent Work, Disrupted Lives: Labour and Community in the New Rural Economy' by Winston & Leach. According to this paper, Winston & Leach discuss how rural communities in Canada have been affected by globalization.
From the Paper Winston's & Leach's (2002) 'Contingent Work, Disrupted Lives: Labour and Community in the New Rural Economy' is an investigation of the impact of globalization on a number of Canadian rural communities involved in manufacturing. The main research question was: What are the effects of restructuring on residents of those communities? It was determined that the people experienced substantial disruption and instability? Essentially, the book is an exploration of "the interaction of the new economy and the new technology in the everyday lives of everyday people" (Winston & Leach, 2002, p. 3). "
Abstract This paper examines the views of four philosophers, Samuel Clarke, Thomas Aquinas, Father F. C. Copleston and Bertrand Russell on the ?argument from contingency? i.e. a basic five-step process that clarifies the issue of whether or not God exists. It provides a definition of contingent, that people are contingent on many things outside of themselves for existence, as is the universe and everything in it and shows how each philosopher in turn has his own version of its interpretation.
From the Paper "In the early 1700?s, English philosopher Samuel Clarke wrote an essay titled "The Argument From Contingency", in which he stated two possibilities for the contingent cosmological argument. (Hick, 1970) According to Clarke, since the beginning of time, there may have been one unchangeable and independent being from which all other beings that are or have been in the universe have received their original. Or there may have been an infinite succession of changeable and dependent beings produced one from the other with no original cause."
Abstract This paper aims to provide an understanding of the controlled studies using contingency management (CM) in the substance abuse field and community reinforcement approach (CRA). The paper further aims to emphasize the studies that incorporate CM with a community reinforcement approach (CRA). This paper offers a critical review of the literature with an eye toward identifying important and unresolved theoretical and research questions.
Outline:
Objective
Background of the Study
Literature Review
Non-Voucher Contingency Management
Community Reinforcement Approach and Contingency Management Procedure Combined Treatment
Discussion and Indications for future Research
From the Paper "Findings of the study state that: "the addition of abstinence-based CM to standard care resulted in greater retention in treatment, a higher number of drug-negative samples submitted and longer durations of abstinence." The CM activity condition was found to be "less efficacious" than the CM abstinence condition in relation to retention in treatment and as to "some drug abuse outcomes measures". Petry et al states that: "These data contrast with those of Iguchi et al (1997) who found that CM treatment had reinforced activity completion resulted in greater reductions in drug use than a CM treatment that reinforced abstinence directly." (Petry, et al 2006) Stated as well is that "although an activity-based CM intervention was not particularly efficacious in this study when applied alone, reinforcement for compliance with goal-related activities is efficacious when applied in conjunction with reinforcement for abstinence."(Ibid) In the present study Petry et all states that "few overall differences were noted between the two CM conditions in terms of changes in ASI scores over the treatment period, and the lack of effects may reflect the individualized nature of activity selection. Some patients chose to work on employment goals, others legal goals, and still others family-related activities." (Ibid) It was also found that the "prize-based CM intervention for abstinence was efficacious, but effects on drug abuse outcomes were confounded by differences in retention rates." (Ibid)"
Abstract This paper relates that, in Jean-Paul Sartre's "Nausea", the protagonist Roquentin's vocation as a historian entails a process of attributing causality, plausibility, order and even predictability to certain observed events; however, throughout the novel, he comes increasingly aware of the fact that human existence is contingent, which is the very opposite. The author points out that Roquentin's realization of this contingent nature of human existence moves him to acknowledging that all of the actions of Rollebon (a character in the book whom Roquentin has spent years researching and writing about) might have been random. The paper relates that Roquentin's discovery of the contingent nature of human existence makes him re-examine everything and everyone in his life and moves him to a point where he is able to liberate himself from the nauseating awareness of absurdity and nothingness that might otherwise have paralyzed him. The paper includes many quotations from the novel.
From the Paper "And this is precisely the existential crisis that Roquentin faces as he increasingly realizes the contingent nature of reality - he realizes that what he believes about himself and the world are merely his way of unifying his own knowledge. As such, while it may at times be comforting, it is not real. He observes other people making up such unifying stories, aware that he can no longer do this. ... Roquentin's knowledge of the contingency of human existence increasingly means that he cannot make up such comforting stories to impose rigorous order on random events."
Tags: absurdity, random, historian, liberate, order
Abstract This paper explains that the widespread retirement of many of today's "Baby Boomer" higher education leaders will hasten the need for a new generation of education leaders and new leadership approaches; thereby, a fresh assessment of higher education leadership roles, styles, approaches, practices and goals is needed. The author points out that contemporary higher education leadership is most often characterized as collaborative rather than unilateral or hierarchical as in corporate leadership. The paper recommends participative, contingency (to an extent) and transformational leadership theories and practices as the best practices for tomorrow's higher education leaders but does not recommend dyadic role making or LMX theory.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background of the Study
Increases in Female and Minority Higher Education Leaders
The Nature of Higher Education Leadership.
Leadership Theories
Participative Leadership Theory
Dyadic Role-Making Leadership Theory
Contingency Leadership Theory
Charismatic Leadership Theory
Transformational Leadership Theory
Emotional intelligence Leadership Theory
Adult Learning Theories and Practices and Higher Education Leadership (Knowles' "Andragogy" Theory)
Conclusions and Implications for Higher Education Leadership
From the Paper "Dyad role-making leadership theory, also known as Leader-Member exchange theory (LMX) "focuses on dyadic relationships, and roles carried out, between leaders and managers." In addition, the theory describes how leaders develop different exchange relationships over time with various subordinates. LMX theory is also called vertical dyad linkage theory, due to its focus on reciprocal influencing processes within vertical "dyads" consisting of an individual with supervising authority over another individual. The "dyads", within this theory, consist of two people (a leader and a subordinate, with the leader (e.g., college president or other high-level administrator) forming a separate "dyad" with each individual subordinate); the "roles" are their agreed-upon interacted relationships and (usually tacit) assumptions about one another and expectations of one another."
Abstract This paper examines how the behaviour modification techniques that have appeared most effective in the special education setting are mainly positive reinforcement and contingency management. It discusses how teachers should attempt to ensure that they provide frequent but variable ratio reinforcement for appropriate behaviour and how they should deny inappropriate behaviour reinforcement by means of time out or other contingency management. It also contends that just as students vary in their learning styles, teachers may need to identify different techniques to be effective for individual students.
From the Paper "Behaviour modification techniques using the theories of operant conditioning include positive and negative reinforcement, contingency management, and operant aversion therapy. Positive reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a behaviour by giving the subject a reinforcer (or reward) for the behaviour. In the educational setting, the reinforcer may be combined with the feedback that the behaviour is correct and or appropriate, taking the form of praise, recognition, ticks, stamps, stickers, or good marks. (Favaro, 1986 as cited in Laird, 1992). Some students may not respond to these less concrete reinforcers and a more concrete reward may be required. "
This paper examines Long Beach Mortgage's change management strategies aimed at strengthening the company's effectiveness in attracting, selling and serving clients.
Abstract This paper evaluates the magnitude of changes required to design, install, maintain and increase the use of the Long Beach Broker Front Office Tool (BFOT). The paper also recommends change management strategies, defines metrics to measure how change is being adopted and internalized by the organization and defines contingency strategies for managing change. The paper explains that change management refers to changing how people work with the systems in place, as a result of planned processes. The paper concludes that when one considers how many IT projects never become business strategies, the role of change management becomes central to any development effort.
Outline:
Magnitude of Change Inherent In These Strategies
Change Management Model Selection
Change Management Plan
Measure, Monitor and Modify Change Management Strategies
Contingency Strategies
Conclusion
From the Paper "Change management refers to changing how people work with the systems in place as a result of re-architected processes. The fact that change management is often 70% of the cost of an enterprise application implementation shows how difficult this transition in behavior can be, Dyche (2002), who writes extensively on change management as it relates to Customer Relationship Management systems. Daryl R. Conner (2003) in his book Managing at the Speed of Change defines the Speed of Change Model which states that each of us is designed by nature to move through life most effectively and efficiently at a unique pace that will allow us to face changes. The author refers to this speed as the speed of change."
Abstract This paper explains that the cornerstone for analyzing the many partnerships between companies, distribution partners and services organizations needs to first start with the definition of contingencies across partnership networks. The author points out that the structure of contingency-based models needs to include the "five lenses", which are formality, power, risk, structure and time-frame. The paper stresses that, for any organization to create sustainable value and differentiation, which transcend product generations and pricing strategies, there needs to be a strategic focus on achieving balance throughout the "value partner architecture framework". The paper includes a figure describing the "value partner architecture framework".
Table of Contents
Introduction
Analysis Part
Analyzing Value Partner Architecture Frameworks using the Five Lenses Model
From the Paper "The next logical step to take with any model of partnership is to test its role in the context of global competitiveness. As cultures globally have significantly different approaches to defining formality, power, risk and structure, and consequently have major differences in their view of time as well. These five factors that comprise the Five Lenses in turn exacerbate the power distances as defined by Geert Hofstede in his award-winning work on power distances and the wide variations in specific areas of the Five Lenses as they relate to partnership planning, execution and management."
Abstract The paper attempts to evaluate the magnitude of changes required to design, install, maintain and perfect the use of GE Lightings' partner relationship management (PRM) order capture system. The paper defines the magnitude of the change required to transform the foundational elements of an IT project into an ongoing and valued business strategy. The paper examines a change model that best fits with the level of change required and looks at the human success factors critical for the projects' success. Finally, the paper discusses contingency strategies for managing resistance to change.
Outline:
Magnitude of Change Inherent In These Strategies
Change Management Model Selection
GE Lightings' Change Management Plan
Measure, Monitor and Modify Change Management Strategies
Contingency Strategies
Conclusion
From the Paper "What is critical to realize is that any IT project, when it is successful in changing processes and becoming an integral and ongoing part of a company's approach to doing business, becomes a foundation for business strategies in the future. In effect a successful implementation of an IT strategy becomes the new norm or baseline by which companies build upon to increase their competitive advantages. The transition of IT projects into ongoing business strategies is a vitally important link in any company, and for one looking to change not only internal behaviors regarding how indirect channels are supported through a PRM system but also how order status is requested and fulfilled, and how orders are entered, requires significant change."
