Abstract
This paper presents the design and plan of of Hagia Sophia and the Saint-Denis churches in Constantinople. The author points out the different concepts of the dome. The paper explains the use of the decorative arts.

From the Paper
"The two structures, selected for comparison and analysis in this essay, are Hagia Sophia and Saint-Denis Hagia Sophia in Constantinople now Istanbul . They were was built in ... by the architects Anthemiuys of Tralles and Isidorus of Melitus. Saint-Denis was rebuilt under the direction of Suger Abbot of St. Denis in the is outside of Paris, France. The former church is an excellent example the combination of the elements of a Christian basilica to which a domed central square compartment was added along ..."

Tags:art history, architecture, churches

Abstract
This research paper discusses the military and political aspects of the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. It gives detailed background information on the previous attempts to conquer the city by several other civilizations and provides primary source information on the 45-day conquest process of the city by the Turks, which changed the fate of Europe, Christianity, and the Turks.

From the Paper
"The city of Constantinople, which is now known as Istanbul, was inhabited by people as early as 3000 BC. Along with its history, Constantinople always held the interest of Greeks and Romans; yet, this interest could only continue until the rise of the Ottoman Turk power. The most powerful civilizations of their times eventually occupied, or at least tried to occupy, this city for various reasons. The location of Constantinople is the most attractive feature of the city; it is located in such an area that the Bosphorus, the sea that separates the two continents Asia and Europe, simply implies that this city is an entry to both Asia and Europe. Given this fact, it is true to say that the European originated Greeks and Romans wanted to control the entry to Asia, which eventually would cause a tremendous expansion in trades. Thus, Constantinople and ?the huge peninsula, known to the ancients as Asia Minor, had been one of the most populous areas in the world.? (Runciman, 22)."

Tags:persians, arabs, bulgars, russians, fourth, crusade, capital, byzantine, empire, sultan, mehmed, conqueror

Abstract
This paper discusses the fall of Constantinople in 1453. It argues that the Christians fared better under the Sultans than they would have under the Latin West.

Abstract
Few cities possess such a rich, varied and dynamic history as that of Constantinople, now Istanbul. The paper shows that Steven Runciman's history, entitled "The Fall of Constantinople 1453", is a flowing narrative detailing the years immediately before, during and after the "fall" of the city to the Ottoman Turks. Runciman's account is far from being dry; like a novel, the characters exhibit remarkably multidimensional traits. The paper examines how Runciman conveys the fact that the history and fall of Constantinople did not happen overnight and the transition from the Roman Catholic rule through Greek Orthodoxy, culminating with the triumph of the Muslim Turks, was a long, colorful and often bloody one.

From the Paper
"Early in the book, Runciman offers reasons why his book differs from other accounts of the fall of Constantinople. His main gripe with common historical accounts, at least those published by the 1960s, was that most historians refer to the fall of Constantinople as the end of the Middle Ages. Runciman refutes this claim, stating firmly that the Middle Ages could not have just suddenly finished in one year; features of the Dark Ages, whether in politics, religion, lifestyle, or philosophy, remained after 1453. Likewise, Runciman notes that the Renaissance was well on its way in central Europe by the time Constantinople fell. Runciman claims that the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans solidified a Turkish capital in Europe, providing a European presence for the once isolated Eastern tribes."

Tags:Emperor, John, VIII, Sultan, Mehmet, Murad, Asia, Minor, Caliphs

Abstract
This paper is a discussion of the distinctive features of the famous cathedral in Constantinople, now Istanbul, which remains one of the wonders of Byzantine architecture, with its huge dome supported by just four piers rather than a complete barrel, and its combination of centralized and basilica style church structure.

From the Paper
"Among the churches of the world, the Hagia Sophia is among the most widely known. It has been called the supreme achievement of Byzantine architecture. Part of its greatness stems from the fact that this building represents a wonderful melding of the centralized and the basilica form of churches. Designers used a "centralized" plan to create a wide space designed around centered, hallowed ceremonial spots linked to heavens above. However, this form had certain drawbacks as compared to the basilica plan. A centralized plan did not provide the processional axes that Christian ritual came to..."

Tags:hagia sophia, church, dome

Abstract
A discussion of the conflict between Islam and the West, including the Battle of Lepanto against Spain, the Siege of Vienna against Austria and Poland, and the Battle of Constantinople in 1483. It explains how these three battles were significant in world history for a number of reasons; had their outcomes been different, the face of the world could have been very different today.

From the Paper
"The Muslim nation has always been made up of warriors, unafraid to do battle with those outside their faith. Writer John L. Esposito says their culture combines "a warrior culture with an Islamic tradition that believed in Islam's universal mission and sacred struggle (jihad), to establish themselves as worldwide propagators and defenders of Islam" (Espisito 61). Because of this long tradition, Muslims have fought in numerous battles throughout their extensive history, including such decisive battles as the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Siege of Vienna in 1683, and the Battle of Constantinople in 1483. These battles were all significant for a number of reasons, and they are still important today in the interpretation of Muslim influence and history around the world."

Tags:lepanto, siege, vienna, spain, austria, poland, constantinople

Abstract
Asceticism, which exploded in popularity with the adoption of Christianity as the official religion of Rome, is a concept not so readily defined. It took many forms, and meant many different things to many different people. This paper looks at the leading proponents of the ideas of asceticism and marriage in the church to further unravel the mysteries of the early years of Christianity and Constantinople. The paper also touches on a few specific groups of aesthetics, such as the Encratites.

Outline
Encratites
Monasticism
John Chrysostum
Jovinianism
Augustine of Hippo
Women and Sexual Asceticism
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Encratites were essentially an early sect, or group of sects who, based on their views concerning the origin of matter, abstained from eating meat, drinking alcohol, or getting married. They are very interesting in their development. Stemming from Stoicism and other generic branches of aestheticism, this group devoted their lives to chastity in all forms. Because they rejected marriage and considered all sexual encounters to be evil, they formulated theories that claimed all women to be evil beings. Also, as they were not predispositioned to eat animal products, they saw all alcohol as being given from Satan himself. After a certain period of decline, the Encratites were back in full swing and became known as Severan Encratites."

Tags:christianity, constantinople, heresy, monastic, monasticism, monks, sex, encratites

Abstract
This paper examines how "The Fourth Crusade" by Donald Queller and Thomas F. Madden is valuable in its reasoned, articulate description of a confusing and tumultuous time in human history. It looks at how the authors follow the entire period from Pope Innocent III's initial call for a holy war in 1198 to the sacking of Constantinople in 1204. Queller and Madden outline how crucial overestimating the number of crusaders was in the misdirection of the Fourth Crusade. It shows how the book is clearly written, organized, well-researched and, ultimately, valuable in providing an in-depth understanding of the complexities and realities of the often confusing events of the Fourth Crusade.

From the Paper
"Queller and Madden's book covers the periods before, during and after the Fourth Crusade, and is valuable as a thorough description of the events of the Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade, which took place from 1202-1204, was originally intended to conquer Egypt, but ultimately resulted in the conquering of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire in 1204. The book's analysis of the crusades begins with an analysis of Pope Innocent III's 1198 elevation to the papacy. Queller and Madden note the pope, "acutely conscious of his responsibility as the head of Christendom, intended to reassume papal leadership of the holy war," (1) and proclaimed a new crusade in the same year."

Tags:constantinople, byzantine, empire, christianity

Abstract
In this paper the author attempts to address exactly how the Greeks reacted to the fall of Constantinople to the Turkish Empire. He highlights how preliminary research appears to show that some Greeks renounced their culture and their church and were fully assimilated into the Ottoman Empire, but that a greater number of Greeks (The Phanariots) retained their language, their culture and their religion and were able to not only prosper but rise to positions of significant power in the empire. These individuals colluded with the Ottomans without becoming part of them. A third group of Greeks who remained in the Greek Islands evaded daily contact with their rulers and lived the ordinary lives of Greek peasants and sailors in the previous millennium.The paper concludes with the evidence that the Greeks ended up destroying the Ottomans.
Considering Assimilation
The Ottomans and the Bulgarians
What is Greece and Who are Greeks?
Introduction of the Ottoman System
Bulgarian Society under the Turks
Ottoman Domination of Eastern Europe and the Middle East
Slavery in the Arab World and the Janissaries
Dhimmis (Protected Persons)
Millets and the Phanariots
The Greek Establishment after Constantinople's Fall
Revolutionary Influences versus Ottoman Sympathizers
Greece's Revolutionary Phase
After the Revolution
Conclusion

From the Paper
"It is interesting to observe that the founding father's of the United States looked to Greece and its early democracy as an ideal on which they would build post revolutionary America and that the American revolution was first fought by dissatisfied over taxed small farmers (North Carolina) and then joined eventually by members of the elite who had experience in military science and political organization. It is interesting to note that the wealthy and middle class colonists in America were very reluctant to revolt against the British especially in the early years of the revolution".

Tags:mongal, turk, koran, slaves, middle, east, wars, balkan, loyal

Abstract
This paper explains that Baruch Spinoza, the first Jewish pantheist, rejected the monopoly held by the clergy over the political power in the Jewish community, was a champion of intellectual freedom and had followers including members of the Islamic community. The author points out that Spinoza was one of the first philosophers to marry Jewish thought with the emerging ideas of the Enlightenment and was more receptive to contemporary Western thought than any Jewish philosopher since Maimonides. The paper relates that Spinoza went to Constantinople, where Jews were emancipated; the community in Constantinople contributed to Spinoza's ideas of intellectual freedom and, in 1664, Spinoza published the "Treatise on God, Man and his Well-Being" marrying Jewish scripture to contemporary philosophy.

From the Paper
"However controversial, Spinoza's viewpoint on God was not unprecedented. Spinoza's version of God was firmly planted in Mediaeval Jewish mysticism, which was closely allied to the Neo-Platonic philosophical tradition of Late Antiquity, as it had been developed during the 9th Century intellectual development of Islam. "The fundamental thing to keep in mind when thinking about Spinoza is one simple, striking, and paradoxical proposition: God is the only thing that exists." The idea is not that God is everything, but that nothing can exist independently from God. While reductionists may want to claim Spinoza as their own, Spinoza envisioned a thinking God. In addition, "although Spinoza was condemned by his community for the heresy of saying that God has a body," he actually believed that God was much more than a body."

Tags:zevi, pantheist, banishment, enlightenment, intellectual-freedom