Abstract This paper examines the book "Maya Conquistador" by Matthew Restall which looks at the invasion of the Yucatan peninsula from the point of view of late sixteenth to early nineteenth century writings of the "conquered" Mayan. It examines how Restall's translations of Mayan accounts as well as his examination of Spanish rule offer his reader a new way of thinking about the victory with some larger issues of colonialism and how the book provides a unique understanding of the Mayan viewpoint on their history, their rulers and their sense of identity.
From the Paper "This compilation of firsthand Mayan notes represents another point of view by enlightening a tale of adaptation and endurance, where the Mayan perspective comes up from an individuality based on strong loyalty of class, family, as well as community by telling the Spanish colonization of the Yucatan peninsula (Reviews). Whereas, the common understanding of the Spanish Conquest was that of foreign defeaters instantly destroying native populations and taking up their culture (Reviews)."
Abstract This paper examines the defeat of the Aztecs by the Spanish conquistadors. It considers the significance of military technology, religious beliefs and the Aztec lack of resistance to Old World diseases, with the last being the most crucial factor in the conquest.
From the Paper "The defeat of the Aztec Empire by a couple of hundred Spanish conquistadors under Cortez is one of the most dramatic and one-sided wars of conquest in history equaled perhaps only by the contemporary..."
Abstract This paper provides an historical review of political leaders in Latin America and examines how many of them were leaders of the authoritarian school. It begins with a brief look at the Spanish conquistadores who carved out the great Spanish Empire in the Americas. It then discusses the political leaders of the 19th century: Sim"n Bol"var, Jos? de San Mart?n, and Francisco de Miranda ?
all soldiers first and "liberators" of their countries later. The paper then focuses on the 20th century the leaders of the this period.
From the Paper "Argentina-born San Mart"n served with Spanish armies in both Europe and Africa, returned to join the Argentine independence movement of 1812. Later, with General Bernardo O"Higgins, he ended Spanish rule in Chile. O?Higgins became "Liberator" of Chile, San Mart?n soon became "Protector" of Peru. The Venezuelan-born Miranda, who served the French in the American Revolution and later commanded French Revolutionary armies in the Netherlands, was briefly dictator of Venezuela."
Tags: spanish, conquistadores, boliver, miranda, martin
Abstract This paper explains that to understand the depth of the word "wetback" people must first understand the history of the Mexican-American people: Although their history on American soil goes far back in history to the Spanish conquistadors, the term "wetback" was born as a reference to those illegal Mexican aliens who crossed the Rio Grande around the time of World War I and World War II to find employment in agriculture. The author points out that the reason so many Americans looked down on "wetbacks" was the persistence of this illegal migration, an indictment against the law enforcement agencies of the U.S. and Mexico and, because it was impossible to know the status of every person with Mexican characteristics, soon all Mexicans were labeled "wetbacks". The paper relates that this slur now considered to be politically incorrect because Mexicans are now the fastest growing minority group in the United States of America, a part of the strength of the American economy and whether or not they are in America legally demand respect.
From the Paper "Society labels phrases 'politically incorrect' as they try to become more sensitive to the feelings and emotions of its members. "Nigger" has changed to African-American, "chink" has changed to Asian-American, retard has changed to mentally disabled, handicap has changed to physically disabled and "wetback" has changed to Hispanic or undocumented immigrant. This may appear to be a move in the right direction but the problem surfaces when people then take these 'politically incorrect' words and throw them around in an attempt to de-humanize people. One may argue that words have no meaning but upon further investigation it is obvious that in fact a word can tell a story or even the history of a people."
This essay is a critique of the book "The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of America", edited by Miguel Leon-Portilla; showing its unique manner in relating historical events.
Abstract This paper presents a critique of this book which tells the Aztec peoples? account of the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The paper examines the way in which, throughout history, the conquest has been told from the viewpoint of the conquistadors ?- the Spanish victors. "The Broken Spears" was the first book to tell the story of the conquest from the Aztecs? perspective. The writer shows the difference between "The Broken Spears" and other history accounts whereby this book is not about historical data gathering but, rather, is of the storytelling and human emotion behind the Spanish conquest.
From the Paper "Hernando Cortes? army arrived in Mexico in the early 16th century and defeated the Mexicans in relatively short order.
Cortes had originally been sent to Mexico by the Cuban governor to search for gold, but when he was asked to withdraw and return to Havana, he gathered 11 ships and 600 troops and made his way to Mexico.
"Previous Spanish expeditions had been sent to Mexico as early as 1517, but Cortes was a very powerful, persuasive leader and was able to rally the troops, so to speak. Also, the Indians turned out to be very susceptible to the Spaniards? superior weapons, as well as the new European viruses such as smallpox, chicken-pox, and measles. Of crucial importance was the Aztec leader's (Moctezuma) indecisiveness about Cortes? motives and confusion as to whether Cortes? arrival was a spiritual arrival or a spiritual sign ? a major mistake. Finally, the Mexican Indians were internally divided and there was much internal resentment about the Aztec domination in Mexico. Therefore, the Tlaxcaltecs and others ? the Aztecs? enemies ? became the Spaniards? allies."
Discusses the 5 conquistadores who explored the New World after Columbus and claimed lands for Spain. Adverse effects on native populations. Type of society established by conquerors.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 5 sources, 2001, $ 39.95
From the Paper "This paper is a brief examination of the Spanish conquest of the New World. Since the initial discovery of the Americas by a Spanish-financed expedition led by Christopher Columbus, the New World exerted a fascination for Spain, who saw this unexplored territory as the potential source of great wealth and power. More than any other European encroachment, the Spanish conquest of the Americas represents domination, cruelty, and subjugation on a massive scale. The conquisdatores, starting with the first five men to hold this title, saw their role as one of justified mastery over the native population. Their legacy continues to echo throughout the Western hemisphere.
The Spanish conquest of the New World began with an apparently minor act, when the Spanish court commissioned an Italian captain to find a western route to the riches of the..."
From the Paper "When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the New World, they found a flourishing civilization firmly in place in the form of the Aztecs of Mexico. Within a short time, the Spanish had destroyed this civilization and eradicated much of its culture. In addition to the desire for conquest, gold, and similar purposes, the conquistadors were grossly offended by the idolatry of the Aztecs and by one particular religious practice, that of human sacrifice. The Aztecs are not the only civilization in the world to have practiced human sacrifice, but it is one of the better-documented cases of such a practice and one which has been much studied in the literature.
Indeed, as archaeologist Nigel Davies notes, to most people the word "Aztec" is synonymous with human sacrifice. One reason may be that unlike what can be found with similar practices in..."
Impact of Spanish invaders on Aztecs & Incas. Examines their cultural background and leadership and looks at issues of plundering, Christianization, depopulation, social & political abuses and economics.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 8 sources, 1993, $ 71.95
From the Paper " When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the New World, they found flourishing civilizations firmly in place in the form of the Incas in Peru and the Aztecs in Mexico. Within a short time, the Spanish had destroyed these civilizations and eradicated much of their culture. In addition to the desire for conquest, gold, and plunder of all sorts, the conquistadors also saw themselves as carrying on a Holy Crusade to stamp out idolatry and to bring Christianity to these heathen peoples. The meeting between the Spaniards and the indigenous peoples of the New World was a culture clash in which the European would ultimately prevail, but elements of the indigenous cultures would survive and be adapted to the developing Christian society the conquistadors left behind. To a great degree, this was acculturation at the point of a sword, and the conquistadors..'
Abstract When the tidal wave of European civilization inundated the shores of the New World, more accompanied it than senseless destruction. Rather, the European deluge ushered in permanent changes in the economies and lifestyles of the Americas. This paper focuses on the disruption that the European conquerors wrought upon the Native American civilizations, which had relatively advanced religious practices.
From the Paper "In order to properly focus this inquiry into the religious change of the immediate post-colonial period, one must take notice of the reality of the pre-Columbian Southeast. Contrary to popular assumption, these Indians were not "savages", possessed of little formal culture. Instead, thanks to agricultural innovations several centuries in the making, the tribal groupings of the region under study were able to reap the gains that only specialized divisions of labor can bring. Since a smaller proportion of the population could now supply the community with its sustenance, resources and people were freed from strict ties to the land."
Abstract This paper explores and negates many of the myths associated with the Spanish conquest of America. The paper points out that the allegations of Cortez's military genius and technological superiority over the Native Americans are unfounded, and, contrary to popular legend, the actual conquest of the native Indians was a long and arduous process and not a rapid and simple achievement; the concept of Spanish superiority over native Indians directly challenges what is known to be true about the native Indians' advanced and sophisticated societies.
From the Paper "The suggestion that the Conquest was achieved rapidly by defeating the native Indian armies with a small group of Spaniards acting alone is also a myth. Such tales of the Conquest, according to the Spaniards, completely disguises the incomplete nature of this event and throws a dark shadow over the roles played by the Native Indians and the free and enslaved West Africans. It is also a myth and a widespread misconception that the Conquest reduced the Native Indians of the "New World" to the point of extinction. In truth, these peoples, via diverse and profound means, displayed enormous resilience, adaptability, and vitality and even turned the impact of the Conquest into opportunity instead of disaster."
Abstract This paper explores the large difference between the European/Spanish opinion on gold and wealth in general and the Incan opinion. The paper begins by explaining that in Spain, gold was something that could be acquired and made, to be spent on other objects and services. The paper then looks at the area of the Andes, where all gold was the sole property of the Sapa Inca who then distributed the wealth in the form of clothes and food according to your seniority. Also unlike in Spain, the Sapa Incaes, distributed food and clothes to the needy and old from his imperial stor.
From the Paper "Five hundred years ago two hundred Spanish conquistadors under the command of Hernando Pizarro invaded the Incan empire from the new Spanish frontier-town of Panama. Over the next 100 years the cruel, relentless Spanish and the diseases that they brought from Europe would decimate the entire Indian population of the Andes almost destroying a way of life and a culture that had been nurtured in isolation for hundreds of years. In the process the Inca lost everything - their land, gold, status and right to practise their own religion as they were Christianised and moved to forced labour camps to mine the gold that the Spanish yearned for so much. Even today most of the Indians live in the slums of the Andean cities or in isolated communities up in the mountains. In the days of the Inca, due to strict organization on the part of the Sapa Inca (Emperor), no one would ever have starved or been left homeless. Nowadays many of the native peoples of South America live below the poverty line."
Tags: america, indian, south, wealth, jewel, royal
Abstract This paper looks at Clendinnen's "Ambivalent Conquests" and discusses how the Mayans and other Yucatan natives were strong fighters. It points out however, that it was not only Spanish military conquest, but more importantly other events and interactions that brought about their ultimate downfall.
From the Paper "To remedy the common exemption of the Yucatan's perspective Inga Clendinnen wrote Ambivalent Conquests. She starts out with the very first encounter between the Spanish and Yucatan natives, which interestingly did not actually occur on Yucatan soil. Actually in the year 1502 A.D. Christopher Columbus came across a floating canoe manned by twenty-five naked people carrying bronze ax heads, cacao beans, pottery and other cargo apparently to trade off the coast of Honduras. Columbus' crew ravaged through the Indians' belongings and took whatever they liked along with an old man who seemed to be the canoe's guide in hopes that he would be a helpful navigator. This was a gentle precursor to the offenses Spanish intruders would later inflict upon the Yucatan's deep cultural heritage."
Abstract The great Aztec civilization was so foreign and so utterly isolated from other world civilizations, that, when the Spanish conquistadors first saw it, their emotions were a mixture of awe and horror. They were awed by the artistic, technological and social advances they witnessed; but they were horrified by their pagan ways, the human sacrifices and the cannibalism they saw. This paper examines the origins of the Aztecs, and examines this civilization in terms of mythology, agriculture, craft and religion. It also traces the destruction of the Aztecs by the Spaniards in the 16th Century.
From the Paper "As limited as the land devoted to producing maize was, animal sources of nutrition were even harder to come by. "Dogs, turkeys, and the Muscovy duck were the only domesticated animals in ancient Mesoamerica. All were used for food, but they made only a minor contribution to the Aztec diet." (Smith 2003:63). This situation is most closely analogous to the rice crop of eastern Asia, and contrasts sharply with the ancient West, where numerous animals were domesticated on a large scale for the purposes of nutrition. By virtue of their dependence upon maize, the Aztecs developed some of the most advanced farming techniques in the world."
Abstract This paper considers the nature of the concept and attitude of machismo and its development on and influence within Latin America, countries shaped by the Spanish Conquest when the conquistadores entered the New World and conquered the Aztecs and other native peoples. It notes how machismo is described as more than a cult of virility as it combines elements of courage and intransigence with an aggressive maleness.
From the Paper "A frequently cited element in Latin culture is the concept of machismo, described as more than a cult of virility as it combines elements of courage and intransigence with an aggressive maleness. This contrasts with the Mexican vision of the passivity of women, seen as submissive and open by nature. This concept is known as marianismo. The two concepts developed from sharp definitions of femininity and masculinity in both Iberian and indigenous cultures, involving a resulting polarization in socialization, division of labor, and education between men and women. Sexism is an elusive and complex intellectual and social issue in Latin America, where so many women have been reluctant to abandon traditional models of femininity. "
Abstract This paper is about the history of coca production in the Andes and other parts of Latin America. The paper focuses on the ancient era, the time after the Spanish Conquest, and the introduction of cocaine to Europe and North America. The paper also discusses the uses of the plant, Erythroxylum coca, how it is cultivated and how its use has changed over time.
From the Paper "The plant Erythroxylum coca is one of the most influential and important plants in the history of South America and the world. From the time of its first use by man up to the modern day it has played an important role in Andean Culture. It has been widely cultivated and used for a variety of legal and illegal purposes."
