Abstract
This paper looks at the reasons behind Congress's proposal for a Constitutional amendment that would require a balanced budget and the groups that supported the proposal. The paper also looks at the groups that opposed the proposal and their arguments against it. The paper concludes with a counter proposal that is intended to address the concerns of those both for and against the proposed amendment.

From the Paper
"Deficit spending in the eighties, coupled with two Gulf Wars and a slowing economy, have escalated the borrowing and spending of this country for nearly two decades straight. As the federal deficit grows, those within government can not help but heed the warning signs. With no end in sight, many inside the beltway have proposed initiatives for capping federal spending. The most notable of these, and perhaps most drastic, is the adoption of a Constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget. Proponents believe a balanced budget is necessary for the continued prosperity of the nation. They also believe budget oversights can be avoided when the President and lawmakers are held accountable for where they direct money."

Tags:recessions, economic, slowdowns, increased, government, spending, surpluses, future, budget, forecasts, oversights

Abstract
This paper examines the formation and operation of the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) including who its key stakeholders are, what conflicts exist between stakeholders, the power dynamics of dealing with a two party Congress, and challenges facing the first director of the CBO.

From the Paper
"The key stakeholders of the Congressional Budget Office in the broadest sense are the House of Representatives and the United States Senate. More specifically, stakeholders are the individual members of Congress who instruct the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to prepare reports or forecasts. The most important stakeholders of the CBO are the Congressional leaders of the Democratic and the Republican parties. The CBO must meet the needs of these leaders in order for Congress to view the CBO as effective.

Tags:CBO, Congressiona Budget Office, forming, first director, challenges, political differences, serving two masters, challenges to overcome, mandates, direction, guidance, funding

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses the budget plan proposed by President Obama and approved on April 2, 2009 by the House and Senate with a 233-196 and 55-43 vote, respectively. The writer first notes that this is a plan which has been strongly opposed by the Republicans and that opponents to the budget argue that it will inevitably cause higher taxes and lead the U.S. into financial collapse. In this essay, the writer explains firstly why most Republicans in Congress oppose the President's plans and fear the deficit created by his budget. Further, the writer explains the belief that that the Obama budget plan will eventually work for the U.S. economy. Color charts are included with the paper.

From the Paper
"However, without the stimulus package, the economy will not recover and might create an even bigger deficit as there will be not enough income in taxes with many Americans being unemployed. If the economy is in a trough, as of right now, the government can help to return to growth through fiscal and monetary policies. Furthermore, this budget will hopefully lead to a broad change that will better health care, reduce dependence in oil and improve education.
"It is inevitable, that the U.S. deficit as a share of the GDP will increase as the stimulus package is implemented. Throughout the presidency of Mr. Bush, the U.S. debt has almost doubled: from $5.7 trillion to over $10.7 trillion."

Tags:spending, taxes, financial, debt

Abstract
This paper examines the functioning of the federal budget process and explores the barriers involved. The paper explains that federal budgeting can also be split up into its basic standards of activity and measurement. The expenditure process involves three different stages of budget authorization, obligation, and outlays. The paper discusses the various parties involved in decision-making regarding the federal budget from Congress to the president. The laws pertinent to the federal budget process are presented in the paper. The paper contends that the federal budgetary procedure is required to endorse specific and apparent information on budgetary alternatives, to provide the lawmakers with a structure for arriving at agreeable conclusions on expenditure and receipt strategies, and to facilitate those policies to be implemented.

From the Paper
"As is with any complicated strategy, the federal budgeting can also be split up into its basic standards of activity and measurement. The expenditure process involves three different stages of budget authorization, obligation and outlays. The Budget authority is bestowed by the Congress and President within the legal framework. It generates the legal base for federal units to make the financial responsibilities enforceable in terms of the obligations. The activities of the federal agencies in form of executing contracts, appointment of personnel and executing orders for goods and services give rise to generation of such obligations. The outlays follow when the obligations are settled down. The outlays are normally in shape of the checks, electronic fund transfers and other payments effected to by the Treasury Branch. The budget authorities mostly are provided to the agencies every year being excerpted from the legislations made during the previous Congresses. The funds are provided without the legislation by the Congress. (Keith, 1996)"

Tags:expenditure, money, finances

Abstract
This paper addresses the issue of conflict between the U.S. President and Congress. It provides an historical overview of the establishment of these two institutions. It lists a number of factors which are cause for conflict such as public opinion, budget restraints, security concerns and split government.

From the paper:

"Having just rid themselves of one tyrant, the framers of the United States Constitution were reluctant to create another to take his place. Therefore, in developing a new government, they devised three separate branches of government with a complex series of checks and balances so that no one person or branch could ever claim the power of a king. Two of these branches of government, the Congress, or legislative branch, and the President, or executive branch, were given the task of working together to shape the laws and policies of the country. A certain amount of conflict between these two branches of government would not have surprised or distressed the founding fathers in the least (Heineman, Peterson, & Rasmussen 33-36). The amount of the conflict and some of its causes, though, probably would have amazed them."

Tags:George, Bush, Republican, Senator, Democratic, Constitution, funds, policy, diplomatic, army, legislative, democracy

Abstract
An exploration into the decision-making processes in governmental budgeting. The writer of the paper studies several concepts to explain the budget process, how decisions affecting it, or affected by it, are made and what role policy plays in the whole system.

From the Paper
"Within an anarchy organization, decisions are made in one of three ways: by resolution, oversight or flight. A decision by resolution indicates that the decision resolves a problem and is usually only reached after significant amounts of work. Oversight decisions are said to be made when decisions made regarding other problems result in making the decision for the decision-makers. Finally, flight decisions are those which leave the problem unresolved and the choice intact. Unfortunately, oversight and flight decisions are the most common type of decisions made when it comes to budgeting."

Tags:Garbage, Can, Model, GCM, anarchy, United, States, Fish, and, Wildlife, Service, flight, decision, Congress, Dept., of, Justice, Budget, Office

Abstract
The paper looks at important court cases pertaining to the budget. The paper explores the role of the government in the budget, congressional spending and efforts to control and regulate federal spending. The paper shows how the separation of power between the executive and legislative branches is important to ensure that the "checks and balances" set up for the United States government remain effective.

From the Paper
"Congress has been given the power to control the federal budget. "Budgeting" has been imparted to this, the legislative branch, yet, the president and his executive branch (in charge of leading and executing law) have been known to try and "share" this power. However, both the constitution and the courts-operated by the judicial branch- see the necessity for a "separation of power," between these two branches, and thus, the court rules consistently in favor of the separation of the two branch's tasks. There is no "sharing of budgetary powers," rather it is a constant battle-the executive branch attempts to gain budgeting power from the legislative branch, and the judicial tries feverishly to maintain the separation of power."

Tags:federal, spending, legislative, executive, Congress

From the Paper
"The Federal Budget Process
Introduction


This research examines the process involved in the enactment of the federal budget. Congressional and executive roles in the process are reviewed, as are the interactions and conflicts between the Congress and the President in the development of a national budget. Deficit reduction measures, such as the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Bill, and the drive for a balanced budget amendment to the Constitution are also addressed.



The Budgeting Process ..."

From the Paper
" RECENT DEFENSE APPROPRIATIONS CUTS AND MILITARY READINESS
This research paper discusses pro and con arguments about the effects, if any, of recent reductions in appropriations for the armed services on their state of readiness. The thesis is that they may indeed have adverse impact on readiness, but those effects could be eliminated if compensating savings were made in other parts of the American defense budget which, however, do not appear to be feasible for political and other reasons.

Recent Military Funding Levels and Trends
Defense budget outlays of the United States are $266 billion for fiscal year (FY) 1998, and actual outlays (expenditures) are projected by the Office of Management and Budget to increase slightly over the succeeding four FYs (1999-2002): $256 billion in FY 1999, $262.9 billion in FY 2000, $265.9 billion in FY 2001.."

Abstract
The following paper discusses the potential benefits of an international form of governance for each of the member nations. This paper assesses whether the problems associated with loss of national power affect economic and political stability and strength.

From the paper:

"For most Americans, the idea of a supranational legislative body such as the European Parliament is alien -- even undemocratic. The idea of being governed by Canadians along with Mexicans seems, well, un-American. There are few more important symbols of our national identity than our Congress and our money -- and to cede such a large portion of national identity as would be required to have an international legislature and currency would seem to strike at the country's most important strengths."

Tags:culture, legal, political, traditions, United, States, Parliament, budget, Congress, translation