Abstract This essay examines the problem of traffic congestion and how governments are dealing with it. Furthermore it analyses the main differences between the public and private sector in imposing tariffs and tolls, as well as how the optimum price of tolls is determined. Finally it suggests solutions that could reduce congestion in urban areas
From the Paper "Congestion is mainly a problem as a result of shortage of road space, and luck of such facilities to satisfy the needs of passengers and travelers. In other words congestion problem deals with capacity Vs demand.Solutions that have been used until now seem not to work. Although the development in public transportation means (busses, trains, trolleys etc.) has had a tremendous growth in big cities, the problem not just remains the same but also increases other external problems such as ?"accidents, noise annoyance and environmental pollution, which all together contribute to an excessive social pressure"?.Why people still drive in cities? And why can"t we build more roads to cope with the problem" What differentiate congestion under the public and private sector? What's the government role in solving the problem of congestion?"
This paper provides an analysis of data from London, Stockholm, and New York City in order to discuss variable pricing as a means for controlling urban congestion.
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that roadway congestion is a significant problem for nations with an active motorist population, especially in urban areas. The writer points out that traditional efforts to combat congestion have typically focused on increasing capacity through increases in roadway infrastructure. The writer then claims that research has shown, however, that these methods are ultimately ineffective for controlling congestion and its associated ills. Economists have long seen the value in associating usage costs with roadways in order to control congestion and encourage more efficient resource use. The writer relates that with technology finally catching up to this ideal, roadway-pricing schemes are becoming more popular in cities throughout the world. The writer concludes that a consideration of the pros and cons of pricing strategies implemented in London and Stockholm, and proposed in New York City, reveals that while there is still significant political and public resistance, the strategies are effective at achieving their stated goals.
Outline:
Introduction
The Myriad Negative Effects of Persistent Congestion Why Congestion Continues Despite Increased Expenditures on Highway Infrastructure
Variable Congestion Pricing as a Viable Solution
Schemes to Alleviate the Problem of Urban Congestion London: a System at Work
Stockholm: a Seven-Month Experiment Ready for Implementation
New York City: Public and Political Resistance
Schemes for Controlling Roadway Congestion Analysis of the Costs and Benefits
Conclusions
From the Paper "Congestion, both in urban centers and on connecting highways, has become a major problem for the transportation networks of cities throughout the world. In the world's major metropolises, the issue has become particularly acute, with congestion having profound negative effects on air quality, travel time, the cost of goods and services, and the general livability of cities. Congestion problems are literally becoming a liability for these cities. As the pressure of congestion increases, the capacity of a given city to function effectively is greatly diminished, resulting in hidden and overt costs for individuals, businesses, and public resources. The net effect, then, of congestion has been consistently deleterious."
This paper discusses the benefits of the Congestion Charge in London to reduce traffic congestion and its acceptance by the population and the government.
Abstract This paper explains that a new scheme has been introduced in London to manage the traffic congestion under which motorists are obliged to pay ?5 everyday to enter central London. The author points out that the strength of this system lies in the fact that it helps reduce traffic, allowing journeys and delivery times to be more reliable, and simultaneously raises money in fees that can be reinvested in London's transport system. The paper concludes that, today, 100,000 people pay every day; the enforcement is working, and dissatisfaction with public transit is decreasing with more people riding the buses than just those displaced by pricing scheme.
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Congestion Charge
Why Was the Congestion Charge Introduced?
Benefits of the Congestion Charge to the Public
How does the Congestion Charge Work?
Primary Activities
Who Has to Pay Congestion Charge?
Congestion Charge Encouraging New Modes of Transport
Support Activities
Success of the System
Strengths of the Scheme
Weaknesses of the Scheme
Opportunities in the Scheme
Threats Presented in the Scheme
Conclusion
From the Paper "The scheme was introduced during the weeklong mid-term school holidays, during which the traffic was reduced by about 20 percent. The scheme started at 7am as a move to control the heavy traffic in London. However, the London Mayor Ken Livingstone, felt that the scheme is more of an political gamble then a program with a goal to reduce congestion in the British capital, where the average speed of the is sometimes less than 10 mph during the peak hours of the day."
Abstract This paper discusses traffic congestion in Oxford, London as a form of market failure. It describes conventional congestion policies and their success or failure at eliminating congestion. It also discusses the failure of traffic planning to counter congestion. The paper then focuses on market failure in terms of traffic congestion and how the situation can be improved. The paper finally discusses the application of congestion charging. The paper contains graphs and tables.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
What is meant by Market Failure?
Cost Benefit Analysis in a Perfect Market
Cost Benefit Analysis in an External Cost Situation
Application of Congestion Charging
Analysis of Traffic Congestion Conclusions
From the Paper "The London Congestion Charging is a policy that needs to be copied for the central areas of other cities including Oxford before the problem becomes even more difficult. The present charge rate for congestion parking is not the real market price but it has helped in reducing congestion in the area of operation. The present charge of L40 for 5 days for non residents and L4/week for residents of designated areas is a very moderate charge but it has resulted in reduction of traffic level by 10%. The principle aim of congestion charging was to reduce traffic levels in central London by between 10 and 15 per cent and congestion by between 20 and 30 per cent. These targets equate to billions of pounds worth of investments in capacity expansion and as we have seen the effect of road capacity expansion is short lived."
Abstract In this paper the author examines TCP (connection-oriented unicast protocol) congestion control techniques that can be used over connectionless IP networks. The paper starts with the author describing in detail why, the TCP is necessary. He states that it is because it maintains a congestion window that restraints the number of outstanding unacknowledged data packets on a network. The author points out that transmitting data devours slots in the window of the sender and the sender can send packets only as long as free slots are available. The author proceeds to discuss the different methods that can be used, their advantages and disadvantages in connectionless IP networks. The author concludes that there is still no real solution to the problem of getting the acknowledgment packets back to the sender without delay. This is why, he states, that prioritization in connectionless environments remains an open research problem in computer science.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Thesis Statement
The Problem
The Issues with IP
Congestion Basics
TCP Congestion Control Protocols
The Multi-Rate Protocols
End-to-end Window Protocols
Partial Solutions
Conclusion
From the Paper "The RAP protocol machinery is mainly implemented at the source. A RAP source sends data packets with numbers and a RAP sink acknowledges each packet providing end-to-end feedback. Each acknowledgment packet contains the sequence number of the corresponding delivered data packet. Using the feed back the RAP source can detect losses and sample the round-trip-time (RTT). To design a rate adaptation mechanism, three issues must be addressed. These are the decision function, the increase/ decrease algorithm, and the decision frequency (Lynch and Rose, 1993)."
Tags: protocols, information, algorithm, window, performance, recovery, digital, transfer
Abstract This paper explains that, in congestive heart failure, the blood flow, which normally comes from the heart, is slowed down; therefore, the blood, which is coming through the veins and returning to the heart, often backs up, causing swelling in various tissues and in the lungs; this is a serious problem. The author points out that there are genetic and congenital risk factors for congestive heart failure, and not all of them can be controlled. Other factors, such as quitting smoking, getting blood pressure and diabetes under control, losing weight, and watching one's diet, can be controlled, however. The paper relates that nursing care can help patients deal with their condition, especially in the areas of their greatest concern, which include activity, lack of knowledge about the condition, and pain management.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Disease Condition
Treatment
Conclusion
From the Paper "There are many different instruments and other medical tactics used to diagnose congestive heart failure. Obtaining a complete and thorough clinical history for the patient is the first step towards this diagnosis. Once this has been completed, the patient is usually placed in a classification based on how severe their suspected congestive heart failure is and what they can and cannot do on a normal basis. A complete physical is also performed. Being able to diagnose congestive heart failure in someone who is elderly is sometimes difficult because anorexia, anxiety, and other seemingly odd problems that are considered to be atypical of congestive heart failure are the things that are seen most often in this age group."
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss and analyze the topic of heart disease. Specifically, the paper discusses the causes of congestive heart failure (CHF) and its affects on the body. Heart failure is a leading cause of illness and death in America today. It looks at how congestive heart failure can weaken the body and the person until that person can no longer function and how it can lead to several other debilitating diseases.
From the Paper "There are also several different birth and other physical conditions that can eventually lead to CHF. These include congenital heart disease that is present at birth (also called birth defects), abnormal heart valves, which can result from disease or infection, and heart muscle disease, which can also come from disease but can also occur as a result of substance abuse. Other conditions include anemia, an overactive thyroid gland, or abnormal heart rhythm. Some of these conditions come from health problems, and some are simply genetic. Therefore, there are a wide variety of causes of CHF, and Americans should be aware of high-risk lifestyles that can lead to increased instances of CHF. "
Abstract This paper discusses some of the advancements implemented in networking protocol in order to reduce network congestion and improve speed. It also includes a discussion of RED, an active queue management protocol that is widely implemented in the Internet.
From the Paper "Further research should be carried out to improve RED. Infact, a lot research is currently going on in order to make RED adaptive to network flows. Due to the random nature of RED, there are certain times when the algorithm drops packets especially if the network has observed congestion. Packet loss should be minimized for two important reasons. One to improve network performance and two, to save the resources that are wasted once a packet is dropped enroute to its destination. Increasing queue size, reducing packet processing delays at the router are one of the methods of improving overall network performance."
Abstract This paper explores ideas regarding nursing management of patients with congestive heart failure. In particular, the paper explores ideas for nursing management regarding appropriate medical evaluation, medication, administration, monitoring, and patient education.
From the Paper "Congestive heart failure is often congenital in nature. Congestive heart failure usually manifests when the cardiac muscle is old and tired and stops circulating properly. This may result from damage to the heart; alternatively myocarditis and cardio myopathy may be present which might lead to congestive heart failure. Heart attacks that end up killing part of the heart tissue and this can also lead to congestive heart failure."
Abstract This paper, written by a registered nurse, analyzes congestive heart failure and provides a detailed discussion about treatment options. In particular, the author discusses the use of Spironolactone, and offers statistical as well as anecdotal evidence about its.
From the Paper "This article proposes the treatment solution of Spironolactone, a known "specialized antagonist of aldosterone" (Margo, npg)by using this drug patients can reduce their risk of mortality because it, "causes increased amounts of water and sodium to be excreted while potassium is conserved" (Margo, npg). The problem with this drug is that its effectiveness has not been adequately proven, although previous tests show that it has a positive effect on patients, not only the sample size in the article but the ethnic groups used in the experiment are greatly biased and do not reflect it as a treatment potent for all types of people. Furthermore, tests on its effectiveness compared to standard treatments did not include beta blockers which is an effect treatment already identified. This article does not adequately address the testing procedure."
Abstract This paper presents a research proposal for showing how an effective hospital-based discharge planning program can reduce the rates of hospital readmission in elderly patients with congestive heart failure (CHF). The paper shows the need for more effective discharge planning programs that will optimally reduce the rate of hospital readmission for elderly patients (clients aged 65 and older) with CHF. The proposal follows a format in which the narrative is put forth, including the problem statement regarding CHF and readmission, research questions that are relevant to these issues, and the background and significance of the issues. The report also includes a limited literature review on the topic, culled from extensive literature available on both effective discharge planning and CHF incidences. The rationale of the study is also addressed, before the report proposal concludes by stating the research methodology that will be chosen for the conducting of actual research, along the lines of having the ultimate goal of improving community health outcomes.
Table of Content
Problem Statement
Research Questions
Background
Literature Review
Rationale
Proposed Methods
From the Paper "At the same time, from this cost-effectiveness standpoint, hospitals must also realize that cutting corners in regards to effective discharge planning, particularly for CHF patients, can mean short-term gains bringing vastly increased future costs. "Hospital admissions among patients with CHF are a major contributor to health care costs...The program's aims were to make up deficits in health care delivery, improve quality of life, and reduce costs for the health insurance companies (e.g., by reducing the hospitalization rate [Stewart, Marley, and Horowitz, 1999; Whellan et al., 2001; Cline et al., 1998])" (Kottmair et al., 2005). Therefore, from either perspective externally, the importance of effective discharge planning for elderly patients with CHF is underscored in the current healthcare environment, to ensure the continued provision of quality care across the lifespan."
A review of an article entitled "Pilot Study of a Web-based Compliance Monitoring Device for Patients with Congestive Heart Failure," written by NT Artinian, JK Harden, MW Kronenberg, JS Vander Wal, E Daher, Q Stephens, et al.
Abstract This paper analyzes the article "Pilot Study of a Web-based Compliance Monitoring Device for Patients with Congestive Heart Failure," written by NT Artinian, JK Harden, MW Kronenberg, JS Vander Wal, E Daher, Q Stephens, et al. It describes the purpose and hypotheses of the study and discusses the study variables. The paper then reviews the related literature and analyzes the study design as presented in the article.
Table of Contents:
Problem
Study Purpose
Research Question(s)
Hypothesis/hypotheses
Study Variables
Conceptual Model/Theoretical Framework
Review of Related Literature
Study Design
Sample and Setting
Identification and Control of Extraneous Variables
Study Instruments/Tools
Data Collection Methods
Data Analysis Procedures
Strengths/Limitations
From the Paper "The support provided for the validity of the study instruments was adequate for use in this study and employed the Chronbach alpha reliability coefficient. The scales were appropriate for this study in that they were specifically made for CHF patients and possessed specific subscales appropriate for measuring quality of life in this study. The validity of the Revised Heart Failure Self-Care Behavior Scale was carried out for this particular study by a panel consisting of two nurse practitioners and two experts in self-care. Using the average Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient across times was 0.81 (Artinian, Harden, Kronenberg, Vander Wal, Daher, Stephens et al, 2003)."
Abstract The paper discusses treatment for congestive heart failure that consists of lifestyle modifications and medications. The paper explores the medications that include diuretics, beta-blockers, Digitalis or Digoxin and ACE inhibitors. The paper outlines their beneficial effects as well as potential side effects.
Outline:
Introduction
Treatments
From the Paper "Congestive heart failure happens when the heart is unable to pump sufficient oxygen to the body in order to meet its needs (Kulick et al 2007, Drug Digest 2007). It can be caused by diseases, which weaken or stiffen the heart muscles or increase oxygen demand by any tissue in the body beyond what the heart can deliver. The right and left atria or upper chambers, which pump blood, can be weakened by a systolic dysfunction, such as a heart attack or myocarditis, an infection. The right and left ventricles or lower chambers are involved in relaxing the heart muscles. They can be affected by diastolic dysfunction, such as hemochromatosis, which stiffens the heart muscles. A high demand for oxygen may be due to conditions like hyperthyroidism and result in high-output heart failure (Kulick et al, Drug Digest)."
Abstract This paper discusses how nonadherence to treatment regimens due to depression is the most well-documented mechanism by which depression produces adverse outcomes in coronary artery disease. The paper then explains what is meant by congestive heart failure (CHF). Next, the paper sites research into cytokines in terms of understanding disease and brain-body integration and interaction in depression and heart failure.
From the Paper "It is reported that cytokines impact upon the nervous and endocrine system effectively shut the circuit between the immune system and brain giving rise to the indication that neural-immune interactions are bidirectional. IL-1 and IL-6 exert potent enhancing effects on the HPA axis by stimulating hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is capable of activating the neuroendocrine cascade, resulting in increased pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone and glucocorticoid release."
Abstract This paper examines the major points in understanding the link between Alzheimer's disease and congestive heart failure. The paper describes the discovery and prognosis of both diseases separately and then illustrates the correlation between the two. It describes the common risk factors of hypertension and dementia.
Table of Contents:
About Alzheimer 's Disease
About Congestive Heart Failure
Correlation between Alzheimer's and CHD
Conclusion
From the Paper "Alzheimer's disease progresses at various different rates. The duration of the illness could vary from 3 to 20 years. The areas of the brain that control memory and thinking skills are hindered first, but as the disease gets worse, cell die in other regions of the brain. Eventually, most Alzheimer's victims will need complete care. Even if an individual has no other serious illness, the loss of brain function on its own will cause death."
