Abstract
This paper explains the theory of classical conditioning concerning the pairing of a stimulus with another stimulus, and the importance of the breakdown of associative learning to differentiate between pre-conditioned titles and post-conditioned titles. A chart that outlines a basic classical conditioning scenario is included with the paper.

Outline:
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Scenario
Chart
Conclusion

From the Paper
''At the most basic level the theory of classical conditioning is the pairing of a stimulus with another stimulus in order to bring about the response to the first stimulus with the presentation of the second stimulus (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005). It is important in the breakdown of associative learning to differentiate between pre-conditioned titles and post-conditioned titles. For instance, in a pre-conditioned state the unconditioned stimulus (US) elicits an unconditioned response (UR). Furthermore, in a pre-conditioned state the forthwith conditioned stimulus (CS) is nothing more than a neutral stimulus (NS) and the conditioned response (CR) is the abovementioned UR. However, during conditioning the NS is paired through multiple trials with the US and eventually causes the UR, which usually accompanies the US, to be associated with the NR, now a CR, with an end result of the CR being exhibited when the CS occurs. What's more, the opposite occurs during extinction. During extinction the CS is repeated presented to the organism without the CR. It is through this process that conditioning is extinguished.''

Tags:stimulus, response, associative

Abstract
This paper focuses on a type of learning called classical conditioning, which was introduced by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov through his experimenting with dogs in the early 20th century. The paper describes classical condition and provides a scenario that implements classical conditioning.

Outline:
Description of Classical Conditioning
Scenario
Implementation
Expected Results

From the Paper
"According to A Dictionary of Psychology (2010), classical conditioning is defined as "One of the two major forms of conditioning, being the process of learning through which an initially neutral stimulus, such as the ticking of a metronome, comes to elicit a particular response, such as salivation, as a consequence of being paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus, such as food" (para. 1). Classical conditioning is a spontaneous or reflexive kind of learning that requires a stimulus that obtains the capability to induce a response that was initially evoked by a different stimulus. Classical conditioning then couples that neutral stimulus with the stimulus that evokes a desired reflex, and the stimulus that brings forth the desired reflex is presented even when the reflex does not occur. Ultimately, the goal of the classical conditioning process is to evoke the desired reflex by way of the neutral stimulus (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2010). In other words, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) like Pavlov's meat powder and the unconditioned response (UCR), like the dogs salivation, is paired with the bell, the conditioned stimulus (CS), which ultimately produces the desired conditioned response after repetitive pairings, and eventually without the need of the (UCS). This scenario is classic classical conditioning; however, this type of learning can be applied to any scenario in which behavioral modification through learning is desired."

Tags:conditioned unconditioned response stimulus, john b. watson, associative learning

Abstract
This paper discusses the causes and treatment of phobia from the perspective of classical conditioning. First, the author looks at the roots of classical conditioning and explains how people learn through this process. The next part of this paper then examines the role classical conditioning plays in how people develop their fears and phobias. In the conclusion, the effectiveness of various phobia therapies are analyzed. Particular emphasis is given to techniques such as flooding, counter-conditioning and other therapies that employ classical conditioning.

Outline:
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning Fear
Therapies to Phobia

From the Paper
"However, today, many humans continue to experience fear, even when the emotion is clearly not warranted. Such irrational fears can elicit strong emotional and physical symptoms from people. When these intense and irrational fears cause unwarranted anxiety and interfere with his or her ability to enjoy life, a person is said to be suffering from phobia."

Tags:phobia, classical, conditioning, Pavlov, therapies

Abstract
This paper compares, contrasts and defines classical and operant conditioning as two approaches to fostering learning.

From the Paper
"Classical conditioning changes reflex behavior that in the absence of any learning, would occur only in response to specific stimuli such as salivation in the presence of food. (Kagan Havemann) Classical conditioning capitalizes upon reflexes that are built in and not learned per se. It is defined by Kagan and Havemann as a type of learning process through which a response becomes attached to a conditioned or previously neutral stimuli. Operant conditioning, in contrast, refers to the process by which through learning free operant..."

Tags:classical conditioning, operant conditioning

Abstract
The paper discusses how B.F. Skinner developed a theory of operant conditioning that seems very simple, but which has since been very widely tested and conclusively verified. The paper explains that in essence, the fundamental principle of operant conditioning is that "organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favourable consequences" (Weiten 237).

From the Paper
"Building on the work on instrumental learning done by Edward L. Thorndike, B.F. Skinner developed a theory of operant conditioning that seems very simple, but which has since been very widely tested and conclusively verified. In essence, the fundamental principle of operant conditioning is that "organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favourable consequences" (Weiten, date of publication, p. 237). This principle is embodied in the concept of reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs when an event that follows a response is likely to increase one's tendency to emit that response. While Skinner worked primarily with rats..."

Tags:operant, conditioning, skinner

Abstract
This paper examines and compares the findings of operant conditioning studies when participants are animals and when participants are human. Differences are discussed in terms of the applicability of the principles and concepts derived from research on animal behavior to research on human behavior. To provide context to the comparison, the paper begins with a discussion and delineation of the fundamentals of operant conditioning.

From the Paper
"Skinner defines operant conditioning as the use of the consequences of a given behavior to modify, strengthen, refine or stop said behavior. This paper addresses the issue of the extent to which processes involved in operant conditioning using animals, non-human species, extend to human behavior. Specifically, the paper examines and compares the findings of operant conditioning studies when participants are animals and when participants are human. Differences are noted that, discussed in terms of the applicability of the..."

Tags:operant, conditioning

Abstract
Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which the subject begins to associate a behavior with a certain stimuli. This paper discusses classical and operant conditioning, rephrasing what they are, and explaining them with real-life examples.

From the Paper
"In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (something that will always lead to a reaction of some type) leads to an unconditioned response (a natural reaction to the UCS). A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This is also called the Pavlovian conditioning because Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in an experiment involving dogs. Eventually, the pairing of the NS and the UCS leads to an UCR. The conditioned stimulus (CS), which used to be the NS, will be associated with a response (CR). The CS really has no connection to the response but through the conditioning, the subject learns to associate their conditioned response with the CS."

Tags:classical, conditioning, dogs, negative, neutral, operant, pavlov, positive, punishments, reinforcement, rewards, situational, stimulus, unconditioned

Abstract
This paper describes an operant conditioning method used to extinguish smoking behavior for a woman. The paper describes the steps taken to extinguish the behavior and looks at the use of a journal by the woman. The paper also addresses the problems inherent in a self-report.

From the Paper
"The target behavior selected was June R's smoking behavior. The goal was to extinguish the behavior. Prior to the operant conditioning intervention, June was given a journal and simply told to write down the time and the places where she smoked each day and to then count up the number of cigarettes smoked for the entire day. She was told to do this for four days. The analysis of data showed that she smoked on average about..."

Tags:Operant conditioning, smoking, behavior, self-report, journal, reinforcers

Abstract
This paper explores the current political and security conditions in Africa, with emphasis on the role of Nigeria. The paper details the conflicts undergone by the continent. The paper also explains the efforts to restore order rather than promote development.

From the Paper
"For many many decades the entire continent of Africa has been troubled with conflicts that have disrupted the political and social order, inhibited vitally important economic growth and focused efforts on the part of African governments as well as foreign powers on restoring order rather than on promoting development."

Tags:Africa, security conditions, Nigeria

Abstract
This paper discusses the living condition of the Vietnamese during the war. The argument has three parts. The first part looks at the general feelings of uncertainty and insecurity due to the escalating conflict. The second part looks at the economic, social and environmental damage caused by the conflict. The final part looks at the independence movement.

From the Paper
"The Vietnam "War" between the United States and the Northern Vietnamese Communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh occurred between 1965-1976 (Hunt 2004). The Vietnam "War" was a very complicated and confusing time for all the parties involved. Many people could not even decide if it was a "war" or a police action. Michael H. Hunt in "The World Transformed:1945 to the Present" even explains how the Vietnam "War" was supposed to be a "limited War" (Hunt 2004: 173). One aspect of the Vietnam "War" that is often not discussed is how it impacted the living conditions of the Vietnamese during the war."

Tags:living, conditions, vietnam