Abstract This paper discusses the causes and treatment of phobia from the perspective of classical conditioning. First, the author looks at the roots of classical conditioning and explains how people learn through this process. The next part of this paper then examines the role classical conditioning plays in how people develop their fears and phobias. In the conclusion, the effectiveness of various phobia therapies are analyzed. Particular emphasis is given to techniques such as flooding, counter-conditioning and other therapies that employ classical conditioning.
Outline:
Classical Conditioning Conditioning Fear
Therapies to Phobia
From the Paper "However, today, many humans continue to experience fear, even when the emotion is clearly not warranted. Such irrational fears can elicit strong emotional and physical symptoms from people. When these intense and irrational fears cause unwarranted anxiety and interfere with his or her ability to enjoy life, a person is said to be suffering from phobia."
Abstract Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which the subject begins to associate a behavior with a certain stimuli. This paper discusses classical and operant conditioning, rephrasing what they are, and explaining them with real-life examples.
From the Paper "In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (something that will always lead to a reaction of some type) leads to an unconditioned response (a natural reaction to the UCS). A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This is also called the Pavlovian conditioning because Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in an experiment involving dogs. Eventually, the pairing of the NS and the UCS leads to an UCR. The conditioned stimulus (CS), which used to be the NS, will be associated with a response (CR). The CS really has no connection to the response but through the conditioning, the subject learns to associate their conditioned response with the CS."
Abstract This paper explores the current political and security conditions in Africa, with emphasis on the role of Nigeria. The paper details the conflicts undergone by the continent. The paper also explains the efforts to restore order rather than promote development.
From the Paper "For many many decades the entire continent of Africa has been troubled with conflicts that have disrupted the political and social order, inhibited vitally important economic growth and focused efforts on the part of African governments as well as foreign powers on restoring order rather than on promoting development."
Abstract This paper discusses the living condition of the Vietnamese during the war. The argument has three parts. The first part looks at the general feelings of uncertainty and insecurity due to the escalating conflict. The second part looks at the economic, social and environmental damage caused by the conflict. The final part looks at the independence movement.
From the Paper "The Vietnam "War" between the United States and the Northern Vietnamese Communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh occurred between 1965-1976 (Hunt 2004). The Vietnam "War" was a very complicated and confusing time for all the parties involved. Many people could not even decide if it was a "war" or a police action. Michael H. Hunt in "The World Transformed:1945 to the Present" even explains how the Vietnam "War" was supposed to be a "limited War" (Hunt 2004: 173). One aspect of the Vietnam "War" that is often not discussed is how it impacted the living conditions of the Vietnamese during the war."
Abstract This paper applies classical and operant conditioning to two problems of the author. The author defines and outlines the use of classical conditioning to overcome her fear of elevators. The paper again explains the definition and use of operant conditioning to increase the number of times the author exercises.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Classical Conditioning - Reducing the Fear of Elevators
Understanding Classical Conditioning Overcoming the Fear of Elevators
Operant Conditioning - Increasing Exercise Frequency
Understanding Operant Conditioning Increasing Exercise Frequency
Overall Summary
From the Paper "The first step involves developing a plan to begin the desensitization process. The plan that has been decided on involves using the elevator daily, but only going one floor in it and always going from the second floor to the ground floor. This has been decided on because it has the least fear associated with it. This process of just going one floor will be continued for a week. The length of time spent in the elevator will then be gradually increased by taking it from the third floor to the ground floor for a week, and then the fifth floor to the ground floor for another week."
Tags: desensitization, fear, exercise, reenforcement, association
Abstract This paper discusses therapeutic ultrasound, a physical modality used in the treatment of a plethora of medical and surgical conditions by many health care practitioners. Although widespread use of therapeutic ultrasound suggests efficacy, its specific physiological and therapeutic effects remain questionable. In particular, it examines how chronic inflammatory conditions are specific musculoskeletal conditions in which the acute inflammatory process is unable to restore the tissue to its original state. It looks at how, over the past few decades, chronic inflammatory conditions like tendinitis have increased dramatically, and the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of one of the most utilized modalities for the treatment of these conditions has grown.
From the Paper "Absorption, reflection, refraction and acoustical streaming are primarily responsible for the ability of ultrasound to produce biophysical effects. (8) The biophysical effects of ultrasound are grouped into two classifications, thermal and nonthermal. Thermal effects of ultrasound are mainly a result of absorption and reflection. They include increased blood flow, increased tissue extensibility, increased pain threshold, increased macrophage activity, increased collagen deposition, and reduction of muscle spasm. Nonthermal effects of ultrasound are mainly a result of acoustical streaming. Acoustical streaming is defined as the unidirectional flow of tissue fluids. These effects include tissue regeneration, wound healing, reduction of edema, synthesis of protein and collagen, and changes in cell membrane permeability."
This paper examines the five key educational principles of operant conditioning, which, when applied correctly in the classroom, are effective in both reinforcement and punishment.
Abstract This paper details the five key educational innovations attributed to the principles of operant conditioning. The five areas consist of: Instructional objectives, programmed instruction, mastery learning, contingency contracts and applied behavior analysis. Each particular area is built to work on a cycle of reinforcement and punishment and evokes the prime basis of operant conditioning. This paper describes how when applying these operant conditioning techniques correctly behaviors that are desired to increase are reinforced while behaviors sought to decrease are punished. The goal being that for the latter to work, the punishment must be effective. This paper discusses the use of operant conditioning in the classrooms, which has been proven effective and is a commonly utilized technique in education. The writer of this paper contends that operant conditioning is actually employed in classroom settings as an effective tool not only for the teachers but for the students as well.
From the Paper "In operant conditioning, it is a prerequisite that terminal (i.e. desired) behaviors be specified in precise, observable terms prior to the beginning of conditioning1. Rather then referring to educationally based goals as "instructional objectives", then, the sought for ideal is a "behavioral objective" with three basic specified components: an observable
and measurable outcome, explanation of the conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited, and the criterion for judging the acceptable performance of the behavior. An example of the later criterion would be that a student performs above a reasonably assigned goal on examinations. Utilizing objectives in this way allows teachers to make clear goals for their students."
Abstract This paper details the poverty and poor working conditions in England during the Victorian Era and how these conditions had a profoundly negative impact on the health and well-being of the working class. The paper describes the long hours, hazardous working conditions, and low pay that sentenced the people of the working class to a life of inadequate food, housing, medical care, and education. The paper also points out how the Victorian Era is a disturbing example of the consequences of substandard working condition.
From the Paper "Poor working conditions had a tremendous and negative effect on the health of the working class in England in the Victorian Age. The Victorian Age (the nineteenth century) saw the rise of a large working class, where women, men, and children are spent long hours in employment in substandard conditions. Working conditions were poor, and physical mistreatment was common, as were long hours, unhealthy conditions, and poor wages. As a direct result of these poor conditions and ensuing poverty, the health of the average working class Victorian was poor. Nutrition and hygiene were poor, and disease was common, as was malnutrition."
Tags: toiling, factories, industrial, revolution, workforce, difficult, grueling, damaging, health
Abstract This paper, while acknowledging that the operant conditioning theory does not, in isolation, seem to be fully adequate for explaining the human learning process or analyzing human behaviour, attempts to highlight its limitations and its significance in the field of social psychology. The paper accomplishes this by means of comparison against symbolic interactionism and the observational learning theory.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement)
Operant Conditioning versus Symbolic Interactionism
Operant Conditioning versus Observational Learning
Conclusion
From the Paper "As shown by the above example, operant conditioning lays emphasis on consequences as the "prime movers" (Baldwin 1986:7) or determining force of the antecedent cues and behaviour. The consequences influence the frequency of a certain behaviour in the future, and transform the antecedent cues into discriminative stimuli (Baldwin 1986:11) which indicate the occasion for appropriate behaviour. Looking at another tall tree, the boy may decide that it would not be prudent to climb it."
Abstract This paper explains that Dangarembga's novel "Nervous Conditions" shows the inequities created by a colonial government and by the perpetuation of colonialism through class division and gender dominance. The author points out that this novel is unique in terms of its character development and its relation to the personal experience of the author, an affluent native woman of Zimbabwe. The paper relates that the women of this book represent the internal societal struggles of gender inequality and patriarchal domination. The author underscores that the novel analyzes the impact of this gender inequality on the physical attributes of women by emphasizing that the road to acceptance in a strict, patriarchal society is through physical ailments.
Table of Contents:
"Nervous Conditions"- A Brief
"Nervous Conditions" - Theoretical Implications
"Nervous Conditions" - Analysis and Conclusions
From the Paper "Nyasha's sage advice also portrays the hardships of recognizing the atrocities of colonial inequality. The author argues that the issue of colonialism is not observable cosmetically. Rather, internal examination of the family unit and gender interaction is necessary in noticing the elements left behind by colonial rule. Class segregation is obvious in Tambu's mistreatment during her educational career, but specific residual impacts of patriarchal colonialism is much more obvious through the role of the uncle, Babamukuru."
Abstract This paper looks at two conditions which need constant supervision from prison authorities and human rights groups with regard to prisons in the U.S. One is whether humane conditions are provided and the other is concerned with the degree of rehabilitation that prisons facilitate. The paper discusses what can be done to improve conditions and prevent previous inmates returning to prisons.
From the Paper "According to Human Rights Watch, prisoners suffer from physical mistreatment, excessive disciplinary measures, intolerable physical conditions and inadequate medical and mental health care. Prisons are severely overcrowded and do not have adequate staffing. Many local jails are unsafe, vermin-infested and lack areas where inmates can get exercise or fresh air. Violence by inmates and guards is common. Mentally ill inmates who comprise between six and fourteen percent of the incarcerated population do not receive adequate monitoring and treatment. Private prisons operate without sufficient control and oversight from public correctional authorities. Both prisoner-on-prisoner sexual abuse and sexual abuse of women is a huge problem. Amnesty International reported that sexual abuse of female inmates is rampant but said many cases go unreported for fear of retaliation. Amnesty reported an undetermined number of cases of prison guards who grope women during daily searches and who rape women. Amnesty also found some prison guards sell female prisoners as sex slaves to male inmates."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses the genetic condition of sickle cell anemia, a life-long condition that causes defective red blood cells, which form sickle cell shapes upon becoming deoxygenated, rather than maintaining the usual disc shape. The writer explains that the deformity in shape prevents the red cells from moving easily through the blood vessels as normal cells would. The sickle-shaped cells tend to form clumps in the blood vessels and prevent the healthy cells from getting through. The writer discusses symptoms and diagnosis of the disorder as well as a possible therapy that mainly focuses on relieving the symptoms associated with the condition.
From the Paper "The main problems which will put the patient at risk in sickle cell disease are the sickle cell crises. These are an issue not only to the severe pain which they cause but also due to the damage which the blockage of blood vessels can cause when they occur in or around an organ. Pulmonary complications are a particular problem for sufferers of sickle cell disease, which are caused in this manner. Bacterial infections are also a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in sickle cell sufferers as the function of the spleen is usually either compromised or entirely absent. Splenic sequestration is one of the most serious complications of sickle cell disease, in which the spleen swells and causes a significant drop in hemoglobin levels."
Abstract This paper explains that Skinner's theory of operant conditioning attempts to define the natural laws of behaviour in which a meaningful and voluntary action stimulates an organism's behaviour. The author reviews several studies relating to the use of operant conditioning to provide positive and negative reenforment in teaching and modifying behaviour. The paper concludes that these studies provide evidence for the relevancy of operant conditioning procedures to human learning and behaviour acquisition.
From the Paper "Operant conditioning can be used for much more complex learning tasks than training a rat to press a lever. In a study by Veraat and Cremieux (1992), researchers used operant conditioning to teach blind cats to use a ultrasonic echolocation prosthesis to navigate mazes and learn to perceive depth. The kittens in the study were deprived of site at a very young age, and then given a prosthetic device that detected depth and distance of physical objects. When the kittens grew into cats, a number of behavioural tests were done, including one that tested their locomotor behaviour in mazes, and another that tested their ability to jump and perceive depth."
Abstract This paper defines and examines operant conditioning. It describes the four classifications of operant conditioning and then focuses on understanding positive reinforcement and negative reinforcment. Next, the paper presents a brief case study of a child exhibiting negative behaviors and discusses how the mother can use operant conditioning as a way to prevent these behaviors from occurring in the future.
Table of Content:
Positive Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement
Scenario
Timeline
From the Paper "The timeline for such a plan is to effect the punishment first. The mother must be firm but must carefully observe Frankee to be able to introduce negative reinforcement, which could be appropriate within the week, or the next. All throughout, the mother must show that she is no longer affected by Frankee's silent treatment by continuing to talk to her, not show any excessive reaction to the silence, in short, act as if it were a normal day. Once Frankee decides that it's not working and breaks the silent treatment, that's when positive reinforcement is applied."
Abstract This paper compares Pavlovian learning and examines the similarities and differences of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. It states that all behavior is learned and therefore can be modified. The author argues that the differing learning theories are in fact simply two different perspectives on the same phenomenon.
From the Paper "Although Pavlovian and operant conditioning are usually classified as different types of learning, it may in fact be more accurate to define them as two different perspectives on the same type of learning.
We may most easily see how this is the case by beginning with a definition of each of these forms of learning. The model of Pavlovian learning is one of the most famous paradigms in psychology: It is hard to imagine that there is anyone who has not heard the story of how Pavlov taught his dog to associate the sound of a ringing bell, and indeed taught him this so convincingly that after a while his dogs would salivate in anticipation of eating ? even when there was only a ringing bell and no food."
