Abstract This paper discusses the causes and treatment of phobia from the perspective of classical conditioning. First, the author looks at the roots of classical conditioning and explains how people learn through this process. The next part of this paper then examines the role classical conditioning plays in how people develop their fears and phobias. In the conclusion, the effectiveness of various phobia therapies are analyzed. Particular emphasis is given to techniques such as flooding, counter-conditioning and other therapies that employ classical conditioning.
Outline:
Classical Conditioning Conditioning Fear
Therapies to Phobia
From the Paper "However, today, many humans continue to experience fear, even when the emotion is clearly not warranted. Such irrational fears can elicit strong emotional and physical symptoms from people. When these intense and irrational fears cause unwarranted anxiety and interfere with his or her ability to enjoy life, a person is said to be suffering from phobia."
Abstract Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which the subject begins to associate a behavior with a certain stimuli. This paper discusses classical and operant conditioning, rephrasing what they are, and explaining them with real-life examples.
From the Paper "In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (something that will always lead to a reaction of some type) leads to an unconditioned response (a natural reaction to the UCS). A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This is also called the Pavlovian conditioning because Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in an experiment involving dogs. Eventually, the pairing of the NS and the UCS leads to an UCR. The conditioned stimulus (CS), which used to be the NS, will be associated with a response (CR). The CS really has no connection to the response but through the conditioning, the subject learns to associate their conditioned response with the CS."
Abstract This paper explores the current political and security conditions in Africa, with emphasis on the role of Nigeria. The paper details the conflicts undergone by the continent. The paper also explains the efforts to restore order rather than promote development.
From the Paper "For many many decades the entire continent of Africa has been troubled with conflicts that have disrupted the political and social order, inhibited vitally important economic growth and focused efforts on the part of African governments as well as foreign powers on restoring order rather than on promoting development."
Abstract This paper discusses the living condition of the Vietnamese during the war. The argument has three parts. The first part looks at the general feelings of uncertainty and insecurity due to the escalating conflict. The second part looks at the economic, social and environmental damage caused by the conflict. The final part looks at the independence movement.
From the Paper "The Vietnam "War" between the United States and the Northern Vietnamese Communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh occurred between 1965-1976 (Hunt 2004). The Vietnam "War" was a very complicated and confusing time for all the parties involved. Many people could not even decide if it was a "war" or a police action. Michael H. Hunt in "The World Transformed:1945 to the Present" even explains how the Vietnam "War" was supposed to be a "limited War" (Hunt 2004: 173). One aspect of the Vietnam "War" that is often not discussed is how it impacted the living conditions of the Vietnamese during the war."
Abstract In this article, the writer maintains that, as several research studies have indicated, there is a definite relation between Down's syndrome and dementia. The writer notes that dementia typically follows as a co morbid condition among adults with Down's syndrome and has a severely crippling effect on the patient. The writer points out that though some studies show the neurobiological pathways associated with the onset of dementia in DS patients, we are still a long way from a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved. The writer discusses that several researchers have focused on studying Down's syndrome and dementia as comorbidconditions and this has contributed to an improved understanding of these disorders and ineffective management of DS patients. The writer presents a brief review of existing literature on the association between these two comorbidconditions in order to provide a better understanding of the complications and the latest treatment modalities.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Downs Syndrome - Brain Structure
Genetic Factors For Dementia In DS
Cognitive Functioning and Dementia
Proactive Screening for Dementia
Conclusion
From the Paper "Earlier studies among healthy population have revealed that many years of education have an effect of slowing down the onset of Alzheimer's. Therefore in this study the researchers compared DS patients exhibiting symptoms of dementia and those without such symptoms and correlated them with other factors such as levels of education, recreational activities, employment, etc. In all, 35 adult subjects in the age ranging between 26 and 67 years were included for the study. All the subjects were periodically observed over 3 years and assessed for their decline based on Neuropsychological tests, reports from caregivers, and the Dementia Scale for Down syndrome. Applying the statistical tool of regression analysis, the researchers found that decline was directly related to cognitive functioning and that higher cognitive functioning implied lesser decline. It was also identified from the study that the level of cognitive functioning was by itself related to the other variables such as education, employment and other activities. "
Abstract This paper describes bipolar disorder and its comorbidities. It also describes the emerging bipolar spectrum, which is a new way of looking at bipolar disorders. The paper also describes borderline personality disorder (BPD) and describes the arguments for and against its inclusion within the bipolar spectrum. It particularly describes the similarities between BPD and bipolar disorders.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Axis I Comorbidity Axis II Comorbidity Bipolar Spectrum and Temperament
Do Some Diagnoses Deserve a Bipolar Subgroup?
From the Paper "The understanding of bipolar disorders is in a state of flux. Traditionally, the disorder was defined as a period of severe manic and depressive episodes with periodic switches between these two poles and was referred to as manic- depression, and now bipolar disorder I. In the 1980's, it was recognized that there were clinical manifestations resembling manic-depression, however, the extremes in mania were not as severe (hypomania). This was termed bipolar II disorder. In situations where an individual experiences 2 or more years of the hypomanic symptoms with subthreshold periods of depressive symptoms a diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder is made. These diagnoses are included in the DSM-IV."
Abstract This paper applies classical and operant conditioning to two problems of the author. The author defines and outlines the use of classical conditioning to overcome her fear of elevators. The paper again explains the definition and use of operant conditioning to increase the number of times the author exercises.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Classical Conditioning - Reducing the Fear of Elevators
Understanding Classical Conditioning Overcoming the Fear of Elevators
Operant Conditioning - Increasing Exercise Frequency
Understanding Operant Conditioning Increasing Exercise Frequency
Overall Summary
From the Paper "The first step involves developing a plan to begin the desensitization process. The plan that has been decided on involves using the elevator daily, but only going one floor in it and always going from the second floor to the ground floor. This has been decided on because it has the least fear associated with it. This process of just going one floor will be continued for a week. The length of time spent in the elevator will then be gradually increased by taking it from the third floor to the ground floor for a week, and then the fifth floor to the ground floor for another week."
Tags: desensitization, fear, exercise, reenforcement, association
Abstract This paper discusses therapeutic ultrasound, a physical modality used in the treatment of a plethora of medical and surgical conditions by many health care practitioners. Although widespread use of therapeutic ultrasound suggests efficacy, its specific physiological and therapeutic effects remain questionable. In particular, it examines how chronic inflammatory conditions are specific musculoskeletal conditions in which the acute inflammatory process is unable to restore the tissue to its original state. It looks at how, over the past few decades, chronic inflammatory conditions like tendinitis have increased dramatically, and the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of one of the most utilized modalities for the treatment of these conditions has grown.
From the Paper "Absorption, reflection, refraction and acoustical streaming are primarily responsible for the ability of ultrasound to produce biophysical effects. (8) The biophysical effects of ultrasound are grouped into two classifications, thermal and nonthermal. Thermal effects of ultrasound are mainly a result of absorption and reflection. They include increased blood flow, increased tissue extensibility, increased pain threshold, increased macrophage activity, increased collagen deposition, and reduction of muscle spasm. Nonthermal effects of ultrasound are mainly a result of acoustical streaming. Acoustical streaming is defined as the unidirectional flow of tissue fluids. These effects include tissue regeneration, wound healing, reduction of edema, synthesis of protein and collagen, and changes in cell membrane permeability."
This paper examines the five key educational principles of operant conditioning, which, when applied correctly in the classroom, are effective in both reinforcement and punishment.
Abstract This paper details the five key educational innovations attributed to the principles of operant conditioning. The five areas consist of: Instructional objectives, programmed instruction, mastery learning, contingency contracts and applied behavior analysis. Each particular area is built to work on a cycle of reinforcement and punishment and evokes the prime basis of operant conditioning. This paper describes how when applying these operant conditioning techniques correctly behaviors that are desired to increase are reinforced while behaviors sought to decrease are punished. The goal being that for the latter to work, the punishment must be effective. This paper discusses the use of operant conditioning in the classrooms, which has been proven effective and is a commonly utilized technique in education. The writer of this paper contends that operant conditioning is actually employed in classroom settings as an effective tool not only for the teachers but for the students as well.
From the Paper "In operant conditioning, it is a prerequisite that terminal (i.e. desired) behaviors be specified in precise, observable terms prior to the beginning of conditioning1. Rather then referring to educationally based goals as "instructional objectives", then, the sought for ideal is a "behavioral objective" with three basic specified components: an observable
and measurable outcome, explanation of the conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited, and the criterion for judging the acceptable performance of the behavior. An example of the later criterion would be that a student performs above a reasonably assigned goal on examinations. Utilizing objectives in this way allows teachers to make clear goals for their students."
Abstract This paper defines and discusses Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning and B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning. The paper provides every day examples of the two types of conditioning and shows how they can be viewed as two simple typesof learning. The paper then discusses the differences and similarities between operant and classical conditioning.
From the Paper "Operant and Classical conditioning have some similarity as well. The two forms of conditioning are mingled in the course of normal animal behavior. Both require an adaptive change in behavior that result from experience.(Dewey 2007) One can learn the same thing through operant or classical conditioning such as prejudice. Referring to operant conditioning; people can have a single negative experience with a specific member of a group which they then can generalize and apply to all members of the group. In accordance to Classical conditioning; based off the 1930's Clark study, both black and white children proffered white dolls to black dolls. The Clarks reasoned that the children being already conditioned by society had associated inferior qualities with darker skin and more positive qualities with lighter skin.( Carpenter, S & Huffman K)"
Abstract This paper details the poverty and poor working conditions in England during the Victorian Era and how these conditions had a profoundly negative impact on the health and well-being of the working class. The paper describes the long hours, hazardous working conditions, and low pay that sentenced the people of the working class to a life of inadequate food, housing, medical care, and education. The paper also points out how the Victorian Era is a disturbing example of the consequences of substandard working condition.
From the Paper "Poor working conditions had a tremendous and negative effect on the health of the working class in England in the Victorian Age. The Victorian Age (the nineteenth century) saw the rise of a large working class, where women, men, and children are spent long hours in employment in substandard conditions. Working conditions were poor, and physical mistreatment was common, as were long hours, unhealthy conditions, and poor wages. As a direct result of these poor conditions and ensuing poverty, the health of the average working class Victorian was poor. Nutrition and hygiene were poor, and disease was common, as was malnutrition."
Tags: toiling, factories, industrial, revolution, workforce, difficult, grueling, damaging, health
Abstract This paper, while acknowledging that the operant conditioning theory does not, in isolation, seem to be fully adequate for explaining the human learning process or analyzing human behaviour, attempts to highlight its limitations and its significance in the field of social psychology. The paper accomplishes this by means of comparison against symbolic interactionism and the observational learning theory.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement)
Operant Conditioning versus Symbolic Interactionism
Operant Conditioning versus Observational Learning
Conclusion
From the Paper "As shown by the above example, operant conditioning lays emphasis on consequences as the "prime movers" (Baldwin 1986:7) or determining force of the antecedent cues and behaviour. The consequences influence the frequency of a certain behaviour in the future, and transform the antecedent cues into discriminative stimuli (Baldwin 1986:11) which indicate the occasion for appropriate behaviour. Looking at another tall tree, the boy may decide that it would not be prudent to climb it."
Abstract This paper explains that Dangarembga's novel "Nervous Conditions" shows the inequities created by a colonial government and by the perpetuation of colonialism through class division and gender dominance. The author points out that this novel is unique in terms of its character development and its relation to the personal experience of the author, an affluent native woman of Zimbabwe. The paper relates that the women of this book represent the internal societal struggles of gender inequality and patriarchal domination. The author underscores that the novel analyzes the impact of this gender inequality on the physical attributes of women by emphasizing that the road to acceptance in a strict, patriarchal society is through physical ailments.
Table of Contents:
"Nervous Conditions"- A Brief
"Nervous Conditions" - Theoretical Implications
"Nervous Conditions" - Analysis and Conclusions
From the Paper "Nyasha's sage advice also portrays the hardships of recognizing the atrocities of colonial inequality. The author argues that the issue of colonialism is not observable cosmetically. Rather, internal examination of the family unit and gender interaction is necessary in noticing the elements left behind by colonial rule. Class segregation is obvious in Tambu's mistreatment during her educational career, but specific residual impacts of patriarchal colonialism is much more obvious through the role of the uncle, Babamukuru."
Abstract This paper looks at two conditions which need constant supervision from prison authorities and human rights groups with regard to prisons in the U.S. One is whether humane conditions are provided and the other is concerned with the degree of rehabilitation that prisons facilitate. The paper discusses what can be done to improve conditions and prevent previous inmates returning to prisons.
From the Paper "According to Human Rights Watch, prisoners suffer from physical mistreatment, excessive disciplinary measures, intolerable physical conditions and inadequate medical and mental health care. Prisons are severely overcrowded and do not have adequate staffing. Many local jails are unsafe, vermin-infested and lack areas where inmates can get exercise or fresh air. Violence by inmates and guards is common. Mentally ill inmates who comprise between six and fourteen percent of the incarcerated population do not receive adequate monitoring and treatment. Private prisons operate without sufficient control and oversight from public correctional authorities. Both prisoner-on-prisoner sexual abuse and sexual abuse of women is a huge problem. Amnesty International reported that sexual abuse of female inmates is rampant but said many cases go unreported for fear of retaliation. Amnesty reported an undetermined number of cases of prison guards who grope women during daily searches and who rape women. Amnesty also found some prison guards sell female prisoners as sex slaves to male inmates."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses the genetic condition of sickle cell anemia, a life-long condition that causes defective red blood cells, which form sickle cell shapes upon becoming deoxygenated, rather than maintaining the usual disc shape. The writer explains that the deformity in shape prevents the red cells from moving easily through the blood vessels as normal cells would. The sickle-shaped cells tend to form clumps in the blood vessels and prevent the healthy cells from getting through. The writer discusses symptoms and diagnosis of the disorder as well as a possible therapy that mainly focuses on relieving the symptoms associated with the condition.
From the Paper "The main problems which will put the patient at risk in sickle cell disease are the sickle cell crises. These are an issue not only to the severe pain which they cause but also due to the damage which the blockage of blood vessels can cause when they occur in or around an organ. Pulmonary complications are a particular problem for sufferers of sickle cell disease, which are caused in this manner. Bacterial infections are also a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in sickle cell sufferers as the function of the spleen is usually either compromised or entirely absent. Splenic sequestration is one of the most serious complications of sickle cell disease, in which the spleen swells and causes a significant drop in hemoglobin levels."
