Abstract This paper is an overview of sixteen common fallacies used in debate. The paper provides two examples of each in the hopes that students can better discern these fallacies when they emerge in debate and/or in academic literature. As a useful point, these examples can also be used to highlight the partisanship of leading politicians eager to spread their own agenda.
From the Paper "Ad Hominem: personal attacks of any kind are ad hominem attacks. Two examples would be Al Franken's loud denunciations of Bill O'Reilly and others while another would be someone dismissing George W. Bush's policies because he is (allegedly) "stupid". Ad Populum: Two examples of ad populum fallacies would be recent gall-up polls showing weak support for the war in Iraq and/or an argument that insists that "most people" do not want gay marriage or an end to abortion."
Abstract This paper examines the foreign policy established by the European Union during 1993. The paper explains that the aims of the policy include issues such as safeguarding common values and fundamental interests shared by all Member States as well as strengthening the security and co-operation between Member States. The paper points out that the European Union functions as part of a larger conglomerate of countries that foster relationships to the advantage of all partners involved. The paper also looks at how the EU is exemplary of the amiable collaboration between countries to find common ground rather than points of conflict. In conclusion, the paper shows that the relationship between Russia and the EU promotes the mutual trust and respect necessary for countries to function well together. By collaborating, these countries then become more than the sum of their parts, and become beacons of excellence and an example for the rest of the world to follow.
Outline:
Introduction: Foreign Policy
History of EU/Russia Relations
The Way Forward: Common Spaces
- The Common Economic Space
- The Common Space of Freedom, Security and Justice
- The Common Space of External Security
- The Common Space on Research, Education, and Culture
From the Paper "A common European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP) was established in 1999 in order to streamline security operations such as peacekeeping and conflict prevention. This has been applied successfully in locations such as Bosnia and the Republic of Congo. On the domestic front security and peace are two issues that enjoy top priority in the European Union. Indeed securing peace in Europe as a whole is one of the reasons behind the integration of the continent into a single entity. As such the EU has followed a paradigm of expansion inviting all to share in its collective paradigms of democracy and peace across the European continent. Countries are invited to join the Union under its European Neighborhood Policy. Under this policy, the EU is also collaborating with countries such as Russia in order to create mutually beneficial paradigms that will eventually extend beyond the borders of these alliances in order to benefit the earth as a whole."
Abstract The paper discusses common law and explains its interpretations and many applications. The paper examines the history of the development of common law, and explores its connection to and the differences between equity law. The paper further details common law and explains it as an adversarial judiciary system of laws. The paper continues by explaining equity law and its origins. The paper concludes that in 1873 courts of law and equity were united in England. In the United States, courts of equity also developed, however there was no distinct separation between courts of law and equity in the federal system.
Outline:
Introduction
What is Common Law?
What is Equity Law?
Differences between Common Law and Equity Law
Conclusion
From the Paper "The common law is made out of the dust of conflict - the Judges will have their feelings powerfully evoked on behalf of the various dramatis personae. They will experience emotions from appreciation to indignation and from approval to disapproval. It is only against that vivid background that the rationales for the decisions of cases are created. Common Law Judges do not often sail into the oceans of abstraction."
Tags: fraud, breach, of, confidence, criminal, matters, dramatis, personae
Abstract This paper details the main themes in Paine's renowned pamphlet "Common Sense", written and published in 1776. It discusses Paine's main goal, which was simply to convince the people of America that a revolution was needed, which would result in the establishment of an independent nation. Paine's publication was generally met with considerable interest by its audience and more than a little ill-humor by academics who considered his writing style to fall far short of the neoclassical ideal. It examines the main themes in "Common Sense" as well as the author's unique method of appealing directly to the highest sentiments of the most common people and the simplest convictions of the most literate. It also discusses the views of various critics who found and continue to find fault with the content and style of writing in Paine's work.
From the Paper "The original publication of Thomas Paine's work was generally met with considerable interest by its audience, and more than a little ill-humor by academics who considered his writing style to fall far short of the neoclassical ideal. One contemporary said that his style was"so coarse, that you would think he meant to degrade the language as much as the government." Even a relatively sympathetic colonial magazine, The Monthly Review, recorded in 1791 that Paine was "desultory, uncouth, and inelegant. His wit is coarse, and sometimes disgraced by wretched puns, and his language, though energetic, is awkward, ungrammatical, and often debased by vulgar phraseology."
Abstract The paper defines public goods as things which can be used by the masses without diminishing in value, such as street signs, traffic lights, or clean air. The paper explains that with common resources, there is not enough to serve everyone equally. They face problems of congestion or overuse. Common resources include forests, fishing grounds and pastures. The paper discusses why they are frequently overused, why private firms are reluctant or unable to supply them and why they are often unavailable in sufficient quantities in free markets. Finally, the paper examines the failures associated with public goods and common resources. The paper discusses how law enforcement is a common resource that can be overused and the paper presents a solution to remedy this.
From the Paper "Because both public goods and common resources are non-excludible, they are frequently overused. Since it is difficult to restrict use, the user normally does not have to pay for the use of the good or resource and therefore will have no motivation to limit his or her consumption; if a private firm were to try to charge for use of a public good or common resource, because they are non-excludible no one would be willing to pay for them but instead would want someone else to pay while they get to use the resource for free. This is known as the free-rider problem."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the European Union was created initially in 1993 as a means of uniting countries of Europe into a single market. Since then the EU has grown substantially, now encompassing 25 different European countries. The writer points out that despite the massive growth of the common market, there remain some countries which, to this date, have elected not to participate. The reason for this is that they feel that it would not be beneficial for them to do so at the present time. The writer evaluates the benefits which the common market does in fact hold for different types of countries, both rich and poor. The writer argues that there are greater benefits to joining the common market for poor countries than for rich companies, due to the way in which the common market acts to reduce the poverty gap between countries.
Outline:
Introduction
Defining the Benefits
Working in Different Countries
Consumer Goods
Companies
Conclusions
From the Paper "When considering the different backgrounds from which the different countries of Europe have emerged it is clear that there are differences in the initial levels of these elements. For example the richer countries of Europe, such as the UK and France have enjoyed high levels of every one of these elements in recent centuries. While the joining of the common market may help to ensure that this will continue into the future, it is unlikely to bring immediate differences in the levels of any of these elements. In comparison, many of the poorer countries which have recently joined or are looking to join, the common market, have low levels of several of these elements. The poorer countries joining the European Union come from Central and Eastern Europe, and many of these countries were previously members of the Soviet bloc. It is the lack of each of these elements which characterizes many of these Eastern countries. The joining of the EU for these countries signifies not only greater long term stability, but relatively immediate effects in terms of increasing prosperity and wealth. For this reason, it can be argued that these poor countries have far more to gain from joining the common market than richer countries such as those in Scandinavia."
Abstract A brief company history and an overview of the valuation analysis are presented prior to the presentation of the valuation models and results. Five common stock valuation models are applied in developing a reasoned valuation of DuPont's common stock. These models are the constant growth dividend model, the variable growth dividend discount model, the price/earnings (P/R) multiple model, the constant dividend model and the total yield model. The concluding discussion evaluates the valuation models and considers the implications for the company of the reasoned valuation of the company's common stock.
From the Paper "Variable Growth Dividend Discount Model. The valuation of a common stock through the application of the variable growth dividend discount model is a three-step process. The first step involves finding the present value of the dividends expected to be paid on the common stock in the initial growth period. The second step involves finding the discounted value of the common stock at the end of the initial growth period. The third step involves adding together the two present value amounts to determine the present value of the common stock."
Abstract This paper discusses that the goals of the European market and the American market are virtually one in the same: The enabling of national and international trade with as few barriers as possible and a commitment to the growth of a common market. This paper defines the EU system as "state oriented" and the U.S. system as "market oriented". The author believes that the European Union has been successful at fostering and growing a common market because of their success at harmonization, the means of making regulations meet a similar standard.
From the Paper "The European Market, unlike the American common market, also faced the challenge of confronting and addressing language barriers also and cultural differences. The European Union adapted to 15 different cultural entities. In the United States a common market was constructed based only on one language, English, and upon a people that are very homogenous culturally. Thus, the European Union is more amenable to growing trust among each state and necessarily had to establish a political system that was not as centralized as that in the United States. It would be virtually impossible for a national sovereign body to agree on a political system of standardization and regulation upon which all of the different cultural systems might easily agree. The European Union has thus looked more favorably upon international regulatory measures than the U.S. has in formation of its common market."
Abstract This paper discusses the role of the sheriff in England and how that role changed with the development of common law. The paper first discusses the impact of the Writ of Right on Henry II's power and on the role of the sheriff. Next, the paper discusses the history behind the changes to common law in the time of Henry II and focuses on how the sheriffs were integral to the development of the common law at that time.
From the Paper "Henry eventually rehired only seven of the fired sheriffs. Henry did not look to the traditional wealthy landowner who would normally inherit the office to replace these sheriffs. Overturning tradition, he instead hired professional administrators who had been trained in the Exchequer. These new sheriffs were professionals, loyal to Henry, who were without a political power base and therefore politically unimportant. These new sheriffs exemplified the transformation of the common law during the reign of Henry II. Loyal to a centralized power and personally unimportant, they were agents of the royal justice, which could now legitimately be referred to as the common law. These sheriffs were integral to the development of the common law under Henry II."
Abstract This paper argues that a common sense view that could be understood by all is more important than "double talk" that is philosophical but cannot be understood by everyone. It looks at the article "A Proof of the Objectivity of Morals" by Ranford Barmbrough who tries to prove that common sense defeats philosophical explanations in many cases.
From the Paper ""Moore himself speaks largely in terms of knowledge and belief and truth and falsehood rather than of the language in which we make our common sense claims"( Bambrough 37). In his argument he says that words should not be subjective. Communication should be tangible and concrete. He contrasts factual information with valuable information. He argues that people do have moral information that goes beyond the factual. This is information that could and should be shared and gives the example of the child who must undergo surgery. We know that although we can't feel the child's pain, the child would undoubtedly hurt if the surgeon should forego the medication. Although the philosopher could attempt to argue that a child does not need medication, common sense dictates otherwise. Words can be used to spin the argument to make it appear that this child does not need medication to mitigate the pain. However, Bambrough argues that no matter how the point can and will be argued the child who will suffer needs medication. That's common sense."
Abstract The paper shows that the common cold is the commonest cause of visits to physicians with sales of over-the-counter cough and cold medications totalling more than $3 billion annually. The paper discusses causes, symptoms and the search for a cure for the common cold with a focus on zinc as a possible cure.
From the Paper "The zinc must be absorbed into oral tissues where it can then diffuse into nasal tissues. Since colds actually begin in the nose and not the mouth, it would seem that a zinc nasal spray might work even better. Researchers thought so too and tried it. Zinc nasal sprays had a mild, temporary decongestant effect, but did not shorten the duration of the cold. Since nasal mucus is constantly being excreted, zinc diffusion into infected tissues against the flow of mucus is difficult if not impossible."
Abstract This paper discusses how The European Union decided to adopt a common foreign and security policy in 1993 when the Treaty on European Union was signed at Maastricht, in order to safeguard and promote the interests of the member states. It explains why Europe needs to integrate its defense and foreign policies and how integration in this area will enhance its role in the international arena. With economic ties strengthening between member states, it is only natural that their political affairs will merge in the long run and since Europe now has a common currency and has turned in a large single market, it is impossible to keep political affairs separate for each country.
From the Paper "With economic ties strengthening between member states, it is only natural that their political affairs will merge in the long run. Politics is strongly interconnected with economics and activity is the latter always has an influential bearing on the former. European nations cannot expect to remain interested in the economic side of the integration while forgetting all the other areas."
Abstract This paper examines how Thomas Paine, in his treatise "Common Sense", argues persuasively that it is only common sense for the American colonists to rebel and to fight for freedom from England. It discusses how he acknowledges that no matter what choice the colonists make, they will face many difficulties. It analyzes some of the points put forward in his argument such as that England is so far from the colonies and has so little real knowledge of them and therefore cannot rule the colonies intelligently.
From the Paper "Reflecting the philosophies of John Locke and others who argued for minimalist governments, Paine sees in the colonies? struggles the struggles of people all over the world. He says, ?The cause of America is, in a great measure, the cause of all mankind.? We hear in this phrase hints of what will come in the Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal" ? not that the colonists have some special right to freedom and independence above other peoples of the world, but that the right to live freely in a representative government is basic to living in organized society. He lays out the many abuses of power England has committed against the colonists as the main theme throughout his treatise."
Abstract This is a paper that discusses a few of the common treatments for the flu and common cold while highlighting the difference of the two diseases.
Abstract This paper examines the issues of commonality that women face as a gender, regardless of their race, ethnicity, class, age, or sexual orientation. It observes that, while there are certain sub-groups that have fewer problems in life than others, there are, nevertheless, significant common problems and limitations women face that men simply do not.
