Abstract
This paper explores the degree to which the U.S. Constitution may be said to be "color-blind". It argues that the Constitution is not color-blind because it permits many instances of bigotry to go unchecked in private life. To bolster this claim, the paper places a great deal of emphasis upon the work of Dr. Neil Gotanda, entitled A Critique of "Our Constitution is Color-Blind". The paper also focuses on the controversial case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) in which racism was seen to be upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court despite the eloquent protests of one of the presiding Justices.

From the Paper
"Gotanda also insists that the First Amendment - specifically its Freedom of Speech Clause - has been used by the federal courts to strike down government efforts to outlaw "racial domination". What Gotanda appears to mean when he talks of "racial domination" is that recent years (Gotanda was writing in the early 1990s) have seen the "resurgence" of racist speech on university campuses after decades of determined effort by non-whites to wrestle back control of the image-making process from Caucasians. As a result, racially motivated speech which defames - or at least casts in a negative light different - groups has been protected by a Constitution that is allegedly "non-racial" in construction. In any case, Dr. Gotanda, if this writer understands him correctly, is putting forward the notion that American society has always been dominated by Caucasians and, therefore, permitting racially-offensive discourses on university campuses allows the dominant group in society to continue to articulate views supporting invidious distinctions between races without fear of any disciplinary action being taken. In other words, whites have crafted negative images of non-whites since the founding of America and this group, so powerful in the media, in the judiciary and even still in academia, is allowed to continue on with making negative distinctions because the Constitution - written as it was and amended as it has been by (predominantly) Caucasian males of property and significance - permits it."

Tags:caucasian, domination, racial, Plessy

Abstract
The paper explores the degree to which the U.S. Constitution may be said to be "color-blind" and argues that the Constitution is not at all color-blind because it permits many instances of bigotry to go unchecked in private life. To bolster this claim, the paper places a great deal of emphasis upon the work of Dr. Neil Gotanda as well as the controversial case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) in which racism was seen to be upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court despite the eloquent protests of one of the presiding Justices. In the end, the paper concludes that there is simply too strong a case to be made that America's constitutional document is racially-biased (and frequently interpreted that way).

Tags:united, states, constitution

Abstract
This paper summarizes and critiques an article entitled "Effect of Therapist Color-Blindness on Empathy and Attributions in Cross-Cultural Counseling." The paper probes the nature of the relationship between a therapist's racial attitudes and beliefs and his or her multicultural counseling competency. The paper also presents a hypothesis for future study of this topic.

Tags:Therapist, cross-cultural, racial, client, counseling

Abstract
The paper provides a brief overview of the literature on color blindness in terms of its nature and its etiology. The presented overview answers four questions about color blindness. These are: (1) What is color blindness? (2) What are its causes? and (3) How is color blindness diagnosed? and (4)Is there a treatment or cure?

From the Paper
"According to Evans, about ... million people in the United States are color blind. The inability to distinguish colors, Evans states, can be quite frustrating for people. These frustrations include difficulties and problems with reading maps, distinguishing colored LEDS correctly, perceiving traffic lights and related signals, using crayons, understanding test strips for pH and so forth. It can also make for a good deal of difficulty cooking foods and distinguishing appropriate ingredients, e.g. ketchup from chocolate. The purpose of this paper is to..."

Tags:color, blindness

Abstract
This paper briefly explains the biology of the eye and the problems that cause color blindness. It looks at what happens in the visionary process between perception and understanding of colors.

From the Paper
"Many people do not know what color blindness is, why it happens, and the different types of color blindness. Color blindness is not total blindness. People with color-blindness can see things, but see everything in one color, or in misrepresented colors. Some of them may be able to see some colors, but not see other colors, while some may see no colors at all. John Dalton, a British Chemist, discovered color-blindness. He himself was colorblind. Color blindness occurs in our retina. The human retina converts the light energy that falls on the retina in the eye and converts it into electrical energy. These electrical impulses are then sent on to the brain. The photoreceptor cells do the conversion of the electrical energy. These cells are of two types- rods and cones. People who have normal eyesight are able to combine the inputs from these cells into different combinations and see color. A set of special receptor cells in the eyes called cones located in our eyes gives us our color vision. The cones are the cells to distinguish between colors."

Tags:vision, eye, perception

Abstract
This paper discusses the issue of color deficiency in the eye. It addresses the causes of color blindness, the types of color blindness and how the deficiency is detected by doctors. It further discusses tests for color deficiency as well as research that has been ongoing in the area of color deficiency. The paper then looks at the future of research that will address this issue.

From the Paper
"Until recent years those who have suffered from color deficiencies of the eye had to find creative methods of living with the disorder. Little research was developed to aid those with this complication to life, and very few in society truly had an understanding of what was involved in the physical malfunction of the eye. Yet, scientists and doctors are now examining many methods of understanding color deficiency, and are beginning to be able to provide long needed answers to those who have contended with the problem throughout their lives. Color deficiency, or color blindness, is a "malfunction of the retina" of the eye (Heath, n.d.). Light that is transmitted to the retina can be affected by two elements. These two elements are rods and cones. Rods are less complicated, and affect the brightness of an object."

Tags:color, deficiency, medical

Abstract
The paper looks at how the authors of the book "Whitewashing Race: The Myth of a Color-Blind Society" set out to refute the racial realists claim that racial problems in American society are now solved. The paper analyzes the authors' three central arguments that use empirical data and expose the internal contradictions of the racial realists' arguments. The paper also explains how the authors formulate their own version of a normative approach called structural racism.

From the Paper
"The racial realists' first argument maintains that Americans can be proud of the fact that racial discrimination is past practice. The racial realists' second argument upholds the conception that if there are lingering practices of racial inequalities, it's because people of color are continuing to substantiate these inequalities through their own choices and behavior. The racial realists' third and final argument is that the American culture continues to put forth social policies that foster a colorblind society. The authors of Whitewashing Race, Michael Brown, Martin Carnoy, Elliot Currie, Troy Duster, David Oppenheimer, Majorie Shultz, and David Wellman, successful refute these three central arguments of the racial realists through an analysis of the weak empirical evidence offered by the racial realists, by challenging their assumptions that supposedly support their evidence, and by revealing the contradictions in the internal arguments of the racial realists."

Tags:racism, social, policies, discrimination

Abstract
In the following essay the writer reviews research articles and discusses how affirmative action affects those who go to college. This paper focuses on the African American college population.

From the Paper
"When the economy is booming there are jobs everywhere we look and the employers are so desperate to hire help that they barely glance at the resume before making an offer. However as soon as the economy begins to slow as it has been lately, the education of the applicants becomes the deciding factor in many cases."

Tags:jobs, resume, economy, affirmative, action, minority, community, prestigious, professional

Abstract
This paper is critical of Bliss Broyard's "One Drop: My Father's Hidden Life - A Story of Race and Family Secrets". The author points out that the problem with "One Drop" is that it is not only the story of Broyard's discovery that she has some African-American ancestry and what that means for her opinion on race. It also is the story of her father, Anatole Broyard, her immediate family, her father's family and the history of race relations in the United States. The paper concludes that Broyard's complex memoir makes very clear that she spent much of her life feeling very conflicted about race. The reader is left with no real answer to her questions about America's system of race discrimination and its impact on people of mixed ancestry.

From the Paper
"Broyard's story of her father and his decision to pass reveals a level of dishonesty by the man that was so dramatic that it actually evokes a feeling of pity for him. The decision to pass as white, whether it was initially intentional, or a just the side effect of not being rejected as a black man when people mistakenly believed he was white, was clearly something that impacted Anatole's life in a dramatic manner. He distanced himself from his family, and his children had no real relationship with either of his sisters or his parents, though their grandmother was alive for much of their childhood."

Tags:genealogy, neophyte, emotion, ignorance, self-identify

Abstract
This paper analyzes the question through philosophical, medical, and semantic rationale. It shows why many would argue against the fact that blind people can technically visualize color, but it also contends that many blind people have vividly described color and the how it effects all the senses.

From the Paper
"The question at hand is, "Do blind people (from birth) have a concept of color?" In answering this fairly, I must be extremely careful not to think myself superior, nor to dare think that I know better what is happening inside the mind of my blind neighbor than she herself may do. However, this is a question that seems to have long plagued philosophy, and it remains a profound metaphor for the relationship between experience and understanding. Therefore, it must be approached with both an eye to the actual experiences and thoughts of those who have been born blind, and to the long held ideas of science and philosophy."

Tags:blind, color, sight, philosophy