Abstract The author of this paper states that motivation and learning have long been inter-related and continues by positing that the two concepts are mutually interdependent since how much a person learns depends on how much the person is motivated and studies and, the more the person learns, the higher the motivation to study further. To put it in less complex terms, students who enjoy school life and show a willingness to make the most of the school environment are more likely to learn. In the paper, the author discusses various theories of motivation. This is followed by a discussion on research pertaining to the area of teacher expectancy and its effects. Finally, the writer attempts to arrive at some practical suggestions, which teachers, reflecting upon their own classroom practices, might find useful to enhance student motivation in the classroom. The paper includes one table.
Contents:
Introduction
Theories of Motivation Person-as-machine theories - psychoanalytical and behavioural theory
Person-as-Rational-Thinker - cognitive theory of achievement motivation Attribution Theory
Self-efficacy Theory and Self-worth Theory
Achievement Goal Theory
Cognitive theory and the primary school child
Teacher expectations - theory and research
Factors affecting teacher expectations
Teacher behavior toward high- and low- expectancy students
Teacher expectations and motivation - personal experience and classroom practice
Motivation and teacher expectations
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "At this point I'd like to share some of my own personal experience. My interest in this area arose from the fact that I experimented with my expectations during the past scholastic year. I don't know if it is the case elsewhere, but at our school, on the first day, it is common practice for teachers to exchange information about their students. Since I teach the higher class, in primary school, I am always on the receiving end and listen to my colleagues' evaluations of my new students, their family history and other details. To be honest I find this practice unnerving. I would have seen my students for barely a couple of hours and would like to form my own impressions of them.
"Last October, I decided to pay attention to their comments in so far as to delineate those students whom other teachers classified as low-achievers or not motivated. I then embarked on a mission to try to convey to these students high-expectations. There was a girl I particularly targeted. She was very creative but I knew she had achieved poorly the previous year and had not shown much involvement in class. As I started to expect more out of her and gave her support and encouragement, her attitude changed completely. By the end of the year she was one of the average students as regards achievement tests and her project work was so good that we held an exhibition which featured primarily her work."
Abstract The following essay will demonstrate that no single theory can explain the complexity of human motivation, and that the most accurate explanation of human motivation lies somewhere in the middle ? where most motivational theories converge. The author looks at certain underlying assumptions that the different motivational theories hold. The author discusses different theories from three different schools of thought: humanistic, cognitive and learning. The author proposes that on its own, each theory has its strengths and weaknesses, and that one can only adequately understand motivation if one tries to combine all three schools of thought. The theories that are dealt with in this essay are: Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, Adam's Equity Theory, and the O.B. Mod Model.
From the Paper "The first school of thought that will be dealt with will be what Franken calls the "Humanist" school. According to Franken, this approach was first proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, and is based on the assumption that humans are innately good and possess a natural, biological tendency to grow and mature (Franken: 1988:p15). Franken goes on to say that the Humanist theorists believe that every Human being is unique. He then explains how the humanist term for the process of development of that uniqueness is "self-actualization" (Franken: 1988). This essay will now show how the above assumptions can be found in Maslow's theory of motivation, known as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow believed that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. The first need he termed physiological need, which includes basic needs, such as the satisfaction of hunger, thirst, control of one's temper, and any other bodily needs. The second need was termed safety needs, and includes a person's innate need for security and protection from physical and emotional harms (Robbins: 1996: p169). The third need, Maslow believed, was a social need, which can be explained as a person's innate need to give and receive affection, to feel belongingness, acceptance and friendship. The fourth need Maslow points out is known as esteem needs, and includes "internal esteem factors", such as self-respect, autonomy and achievement. It also includes "external esteem factors", such as status, recognition, and attention. The final need making up Malsow's Hierarchy of Needs is termed self-actualization, and includes the drive for one to reach one's full potential, strive for personal growth, and become self-fulfilled (Robbins: 1996: p169)."
Abstract There are many reasons why teachers use extrinsic motivation, sometimes also called external rewards or tangible rewards, in the classroom and there are differing points of view as to whether this style of reward is appropriate for students. This paper explains that one of the main concerns is whether this teaches children that they should receive something for good behavior. Children may behave better in the hopes of receiving some reward, but they may also behave poorly if the reward is not something that they feel they want or need. The paper shows that, because of this, teachers and others that work in the education field must decide if extrinsic motivation is right for their students based on the age-group that is being taught and other factors. There are both advantages and disadvantages to extrinsic motivation in the classroom and the key is to determine whether the advantages outweigh the disadvantages when deciding whether to use this type of motivation with a particular group of students.
Paper Outline:
Introduction
Description of the Topic
Advantages and Disadvantages For Classroom Use
The Debate Surrounding Extrinsic Motivation Implications For the Field of Teaching
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Proper behavior in the classroom must be rewarded, just as negative behavior or inappropriate behavior is often punished. Tangible rewards such as candy, notes home with happy comments, parties, free time, and other issues work very well. However, intangible rewards such as speaking to a student about how well he or she has performed on something particular or simply giving the student a pat on the back and letting him or her know that he or she has done a good job often goes just as far as getting something tangible, depending on the student, and on the way that the message is delivered."
Abstract This paper discusses motivation in terms of theories of motivation, with some classified as process theories of motivation and some as content theories . It explains that process theories emphasize cognitive processes, such as mental responses to circumstances, as in Adams' theory. Content theories, the author expands, emphasize needs and the relationship between the individual and his or her environment.
From the Paper "Several theories of motivation have been offered, some classified as process theories of motivation (such as Adams Equity Theory), and some as content theories (such as the Maslow Hierarchy of Needs). Process theories emphasize cognitive processes, such as mental responses to circumstances, as in Adams' theory. Content theories emphasize needs and the relationship between the individual and his or her environment (BMGT-1301 DCCD, 1998, paras. 5, 24). Motivation is defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals. There are a number of types of theory of motivation, including need theories, goal-setting theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory. The motivation in a given case is culture bound. In the American context, Maslow's hierarchy of needs coincides with American culture. The achievement need is high in terms of American bias as well. People are more willing to work well together when they are doing so in terms of ..."
A look at how the film "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind" conforms to traditional attachment theory and is in fact a graphical illustration of that theory.
Abstract In a discussion and analysis of the film, "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind", this paper explains that this film depicts the human being as a web of emotional attachment that is unconsciously tied back to the parents and interlinked in very complex ways to external objects as well as to multiple areas of the brain. The paper then goes on to examine how "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind" not only conforms to attachment theory but combines that theory with cognitive-motivational structure theory.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Rationale for the Film
The Process of Erasing Attachment
Attachment Theory and the Main Characters
Two Patterns of Attachment Theory
Communication Style
Care-seeking at the Infantile Level
Conclusion
From the Paper "According to Wampler and Riggs (2004), the techniques of the two individuals in seeking comfort and security from one another in their relationship often are similar. This is because they can switch roles. Research indicates that the majority of partners will assume both roles and move back and forth between the roles of support and comfort-seeking during any problem-solving discussion. Clementine is quite aggressive and is the one who suggests having a drink and spending the night at Joel's place. More importantly, she knows hoe to attack his defenses. She describes him as close-mouthed and herself as constantly anxious."
This paper is a review of the article, "The Role of Motivation and Attitudes in Adolescents" Help-Seeking in Math Class?, by Allison Ryan and Raul Pintrich, published in the "Journal of Educational Psychology".
Abstract This paper explains that Ryan and Pintrich's article examines the cognitive, motivational, and social influences on help-seeking behavior in math classrooms in the seventh and eighth grades. The author points out that the decision to seek help is filtered through a motivational-affective system, which includes students? perceptions of competence, achievement goals, and attitudes. The paper relates that one of the weaknesses of the study is that the subject population is relatively homogeneous and does not represent persons from a variety of socioeconomic or ethnic groups. Moreover, the current study focuses on math class; results might have been different for different subjects.
From the Paper "Metacognitive skills greatly improve in adolescence, and students become more aware of when they need help with their work. However, research has shown that adolescents are not actively seeking help with their work when needed. The contradiction between the awareness of needing help and the avoidance of seeking help is the focus of the current study, as is clearly stated on the first page of the article. Furthermore, the authors take care to note that the problem deserves investigation and has a sound theoretical rationale. For example, they state, "when students don"t garner help when it is needed they put themselves at a disadvantage for learning and performance.? "
Abstract This paper begins with a review of the literature on the cognitive and affective bases of behavior. The review is followed by a brief description of neural networking model of cognition. The paper concludes with an attempt to answer the central question, the purposes of affect in the neural networking model.
Introduction
Cognitive and Affective Bases of Behavior - Sampling of literature
Neural Networking Model of Cognition How can you account for the purposes of affect in a neural networking
model of cognition?
From the Paper "Neural network (NN) modeling has developed as a major component of science's attempt to understand the brain. NN modeling attempts to answer the fundamental question of how does the brain's formidable information-processing abilities emerge from the self-organizing behavior of a collection of relatively simple neurons?"
This paper provides a critique of the research paper "Does Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Hearing Impairment Improve by Hearing Aid Use?" by van Hooren et al.
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the main hypothesis of the study, "Does Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Hearing Impairment Improve by Hearing Aid Use?", can be stated as follows: while hearing aids show significant results in terms of auditory improvement, there is no proof to suggest a related improvement or increase in cognitive ability as a result of the application of a hearing aid. The writer explains that the study refers to cognitive functions such as memory, attention, executive functioning, and processing speed. The writer also explains that it should be noted at the outset that this hypothesis presupposes a connection, albeit based on prior research sources, between hearing or hearing enhancements and cognitive functioning. Thus, this is an aspect that forms part of the critique in this analysis of the paper. The writer points out that it is also suggested that the methodology used to ascertain cognitive correlation is to some extent not adequate in terms of the complexity of determining quantitatively a definite link between hearing aids and improved cognition.
From the Paper "The methodology used in this study was comparatively simple and conventionally straight-forward. In essence a relatively small number or participants were used in this study - which is also a point of contention with regard to the results and conclusion of this research. In total there were fifty-six participants (mean age 0/72.5) who were fitted with hearing aids were compared with 46 control participants (mean age 0/74.5) with an equivalent impairment, but who were not fitted with a hearing aid. The study took cognizance of a number of variables and factors that could influence the results of the experiment. These included neurocognitive tests after 12 months. However, it is also possible that these tests in terms of personality and individual psychological components were not sufficient. This aspect is possibly one of the reasons why the study did not return the expected correlation between hearing aids and cognitive improvement."
Tags: memory, attention, cognition, sensory, organ
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts various cognition principles as applied to a high school journalism class. Specifically, the paper examines situated cognition,distributed cognition,and socially shared cognition principles. The paper looks at commonalities and differences and analyzes what objectives are easily assessed from each theoretical framework.
From the Paper "The students in a 12th grade journalism class are learning interviewing skills and how to assemble a news story. The students are assigned to travel to the local government center where reporters are assembling for a statewide video-feed media conference with the governor of the state. There, they will join working reporters who will question the governor after she makes her opening remarks. Instructional Objectives: Each student will be able to: 1. Determine the newsworthiness of topics for a news stories. 2. Select the most newsworthy topic. 3. Plan and write a news story for publication on the same day. 4. Publish the edited story on the class web site as part of the school's intranet. Assessment Methods: 1. News stories will be reviewed for understanding of basic journalistic concepts taught in class."
Abstract This paper discusses IQ tests: their history, their significance and their conclusions. It discusses the first IQ tests in history and explains how the idea came about. It defines several relevant psychological terms such as cognition, intelligence, thinking, and more. It studies the environmental and genetic causes of low cognitive ability: Finally, it concludes that cognition and the study of the brain will develop greatly in the future using FMRI's and other new techniques.
From the Paper "Ever since Simon and Binet developed the first intelligence test in 1905, the field of psychology has maintained a strong interest in the nature of intelligence. How do we think? Why are some people better problem solvers than others? What is cognition, the ability to think about our environment? Why are some people consistently more able to use their brains to think, to remember, and to problem-solve than others?"
An overview of cognitive behavior therapy, focusing on the roles of the therapist and patient and how it compares to other therapies used in psychology.
3,720 words (approx. 14.9 pages), 6 sources, 2006, $ 133.95
Abstract This paper discusses cognitive behavioral therapy and the elements of its practice. It also explores the therapist and patient roles of cognitive behavioral therapy, and how it relates to other therapies currently used in psychology. Adlerian therapy, person centered therapy, existential therapy, Gestalt therapy, reality therapy, solution oriented brief therapy, multi-modal therapy, feminist therapy, and rational emotion behavior therapy are discussed and contrasted to traditional cognitive behavioral therapy. Through these comparisons a focus on the central characteristics of these therapies is evident, providing a framework for patients and professionals to determine which therapy would be most effective for the needs of particular patients.
Abstract The essay evaluates three different intelligence or cognitive tests, namely Raven's test, the Mental Alertness test (HSRC) and the Cognitive Process Profile. These tests are used in both academic and workplace settings and are mainly critiqued in this essay according to their manual information, norm groups, reliability, purpose, and item content.
From the Paper "Intelligence tests are being used increasingly to assist individuals in educational planning, and in making decisions about aspects of their own lives" (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Raven's tests have been described as "tests of observation and clear thinking"( Raven et al., 1998, p.657). The Mental Alertness test is to provide measures of general intelligence, arithmetical ability and certain language abilities (Lombard, 1975). A strength of the Cognitive Process Profile is that it measures learning potential and involves a teach-test-teach approach (CPP Manual, 2000).?
Abstract This is a review of a cognitive psychology article that found that older adults can accurately assess the side effects of their own medications -- something that tends to be dismissed by health professionals who do not believe that older adults have sufficient cognitive skills to make such assessments.
Abstract This is a three-page paper on cognitive dissonance. A person who can handle one situation well, but not another tends to experience discomfort from cognitive dissonance. The paper explores How this can affect others in business or at the workplace.
Abstract This paper identifies three assumptions on cognitive development that may already be outdated or no longer apply to current developments and discusses propositions that may be accepted in the current period. Moreover, the paper compares and differentiates two great minds in cognitive theory, Bruner and Vygotsky.
From the Paper "There are many ways in which cognitive development can be learned and studied, but I just want to point out three assumptions on children and human nature which might be problematic for educators, specifically early childhood educators. The separation of mind and body: It is usual to think that thinking from feeling and thinking from social interaction is separate. The cognitive becomes attached to the logical, reasoned, rule-governed, and thoughtful; non-cognitive becomes everything else, including the intuitive, the emotional, and the social. We assume that developments on the cognitive side of the fence can be isolated, observed, described and even fostered without direct involvement of non-cognitive processes (Siefert, 2002). Unfortunately, this assumption is far from the fact, that work with children routinely requires attention to the common influence of the cognitive and non-cognitive. Unfortunately, the facts uncovered about this assumption is still being used today and textbooks, research programs and entire academic careers are arranged in such a way."
