Abstract This paper is a summary and comment on an article by Aronson called "The Rationalizing Animal", concerning Feistinger's theory of cognitivedissonance, how dissonance develops, how dissonance is resolved through rationalization, the lengths to which the individual will go to resolve dissonance It also discusses how dissonance is involved in the operation of conscience.
From the Paper "Aronson (1973) examines the concept of rationalization from the point of view of a psychologist examining human behavior and why people believe things that make little sense, suggesting that they may be rationalizing in order to reconcile different ideas they may hold at the same time. The author refers to the theory of cognitive dissonance offered by Feistinger in 1957, a theory that describes and predicts such rationalizing behavior. We receive messages from our surroundings all the time that may challenge our assumptions, our beliefs, or our behaviors, and we may continue behaviors that counter these messages even if we believe the message as well. Aronson notes that the more the individual is committed to a course of action, the more he or she will resist any information that threatens to change that course. This creates cognitive dissonance, and the individual will seek to reduce that dissonance through rationalization."
Abstract This is a three-page paper on cognitivedissonance. A person who can handle one situation well, but not another tends to experience discomfort from cognitivedissonance. The paper explores How this can affect others in business or at the workplace.
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that marketers need to understand the role of involvement and habit, information processing and the concept of life values in consumer behavior, as well as cultural determinants. The behavioral sciences such as sociology and psychology are paramount in achieving this goal. The writer points out that consumers' demand for an exciting variety of new products puts ceaseless strain on companies to constantly try to understand consumer behavior. The writer explains that marketing products thus becomes pointless if the marketers are unaware of the consumers' needs and wants. The writer maintains that without the knowledge of the varying areas of behavioral sciences it would be difficult for marketers to identify the characteristics of their consumers and they would be unable to achieve maximum sales and product potential.
Outline:
Introduction
Elements of the Decision-Making Process
Example of CognitiveDissonance Characteristics and Effects of CognitiveDissonance How to Use Process to Drive Buyer's Actions
Customer Satisfaction and Purchasing Behavior
Expectation Disconfirmation Theory
Conclusion
From the Paper "There are five elements of consumer behavior that lead to a purchasing decision. The first element is problem recognition; the consumer comprehends a need, difference between a perfect and a genuine situation. The situation can be as simple as seeing there is no bread left. Second information search, the consumer is looking for value. This is where clarification of options is revealed to the consumer and many involve internal and external search. Next is assessment of other possibilities. What standards will be used and what is the perceived value in making the purchasing decision. Fourth is the decision to purchase. This involves when, to buy, who to buy from, or if to buy at all. When to buy will come from influences like store atmosphere, time, is there a sale happening, and the shopping experience. Who to buy from will depend on the terms of the sale, past experience with the seller, and the return policy. If all the factors do not fit what the consumer is looking for the consumer may and will chose not to buy. Fifth is post-purchase behavior. Once the consumer makes the decision to purchase, he or she will compare the likelihood the buying decision meant expectations, this will leave the buyer either satisfied or dissatisfied."
Abstract This study examines the effects of cognitivedissonance on tobacco users whose aim is to quit smoking. Hypothesized predictions were generated from cognitivedissonance theory, which suggests that creation of dissonance may contribute to the likelihood that users will attempt to quit smoking and will successfully do so. The writer maintains that the results of the preliminary literature review suggest that cognitivedissonance is most likely to occur in tobacco users when the user has to choose between beliefs and actions that are not compatible. The exact nature of cognitivedissonance to tobacco use is examined in this research article.
Contents:
Introduction
Literature Review
The Nature of CognitiveDissonance Theory
Selective Exposure and Post Decision Dissonance Theories of Minimal Justification
Reducing CognitiveDissonance
From the Paper "Cognitive dissonance theory can be used to describe the discrepancy users feel between what they know to be true regarding tobacco use and their interpretation or the relative weight they give to this information. Cognitive dissonance suggests that while many users may acknowledge reports from the Surgeon General that tobacco use leads to death or cancer, they may reinterpret this information in a more positive light to reduce the conflict that results from acknowledging they are voluntarily engaging in a habit that is not health promoting. Cognitive dissonance however may also lead to enough discomfort or dissonance in the user to encourage more users to quit permanently, not on the basis of reward but rather to alleviate the dissonance occurring between their attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. Dissonance is more likely to be evident in users who acknowledge that tobacco use is bad for them, yet continue to purchase and smoke to assuage their cravings for nicotine."
Abstract This essay provides an overview of psychologist Leon Festinger's work on the flexibility of the boundaries of attitude and action and how these limits are affected by changing outside stimuli and influence. The paper describes one of Festinger's experiments and explains his notion of cognitivedissonance, the condition that results when the balance between attitude and action is contradicted. The paper also shows Festinger's contribution to methods of psychological study, and how his theories have subsequently been expanded.
From the Paper "A task that an individual perceives to be distasteful is often seen as a result of an outside influence or stimuli that results in the formation of this individual's perception, or attitude, toward this task. This attitude reflects an individual's belief, which in turn reflects the set of personal values that form the framework of that individual's self-awareness and esteem. Since personal behavior is directly driven by personal attitude or belief, one could arrive at the conclusion that the individual behavior is a result of a balance between personal attitude and action. What would occur within this fragile framework of self-balance, however, should one's individual belief or attitude come into direct conflict with one's individual actions?"
Abstract This paper studies the theory of cognitivedissonance and how philosophers and psychologists have used the theory in an attempt to understand different psychological states and problems. Fear of death, a universal emotion, is cited as an example of cognitivedissonance often studied by philosophers and psychologists. The paper continues with a discussion of the different religious, social, and philosophical manifestations of this fear and their application to society.
From the Paper "Cognitive Dissonance: Human psychology has always been a subject of great interest to philosophers down the ages. From the time of Aristotle and Socrates, there has been exhaustive focus and study on human behavioral patterns and the motivations that underlie it. Ancient and current philosophers continue to expand their understanding of human psychology in an attempt to understand the issues and conflicts that prevent human kind from actualizing a professed philosophy. It is in this context that the theory of cognitive dissonance assumes importance."
Abstract This paper reviews the four general theories of communication: system, cognitivedissonance, symbolic convergence and Burke's dramatism. The paper presents the history and evolution on each theory and then provides a real-life example of the theory's application. Outline: System Theory CognitiveDissonance Symbolic Convergence Burke's Dramatism
From the Paper "General theories are universal explanations which account for broad classes of events. General theories are similar to theories developed in the natural and physical sciences. General theories attempt to provide accounts of human communication behavior based upon generalized regularities. Thus, general theories may be applicable and relevant to many different groups and cultures, across many times. A general theory has as much usefulness in predicting and/or explaining the communication of an American as it does an Australian. As general theories are not time bound, the propositions which undergrid the theory might be as true today, or fifty years from now, as they were fifty or one hundred years ago."
Discusses the social psychological theory of cognitivedissonance. Identifies choice, insufficient justification, effort justification and contradictory information as the four primary causes of dissonance.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 1 source, 1997, $ 23.95
From the Paper "Cognitive theory studies how people understand the world around them and how this cognition aids their efforts for successful adaptation to the surrounding environment. A prevailing assumption is that cognition affects behavior. Certain theories hold that this progression is also influenced by motivations. Motivation is viewed as a "moving force which instigates behavior and is primarily a function of thought rather than needs, drives, or arousal" (Reeve, 1997, 160). There are many suppositions as to what these forces are. One such theory holds that dissonance can be a primary motivator for a person's actions.
Dissonance is the discomfort in psychological and physiological states caused when an inconsistency is created between a person's beliefs and his or her behaviors. Dissonance ..."
Examines the impact of confusing medial and cultural messages about drinking, the role of cognitivedissonance, incidence, economic aspects and sexuality.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 7 sources, 1999, $ 39.95
Abstract Cognitivedissonance is a theory put forth by Festinger and others which derives from the view that "when our behavior does not reflect our beliefs we will experience dissonance: a conflict between our intellect and our actions" (Huber and Wien 25).
From the Paper "Cognitive dissonance is a theory put forth by Festinger and others which derives from the view that "when our behavior does not reflect our beliefs we will experience dissonance: a conflict between our intellect and our actions" (Huber and Wien 25). We receive messages from our surroundings all the time which may challenge our assumptions, our beliefs, or our behaviors, and we may continue behaviors which counter these messages even if we believe the message as well. Young people are assaulted with media images, messages from peers, messages from teachers, and messages from parents and other adults which the behavior of these young people may go against, creating cognitive dissonance as they learn one lesson and act out another at the same time. We can see this in certain behaviors which young people know are bad for them but in which they may indulge in any case, such as ..."
Abstract The paper discusses how consumers of all goods and services frequently experience what is known as cognitivedissonance, or post-purchase anxiety. The paper analyzes how this is especially prevalent with purchases, such as cellular phone agreements, that require the consumer to buy into a contract of some duration. The writer proposes that the fact that the Disney Mobile phone involves the buyer's children, and is marketed on the basis of improving child safety, only increases the consumer's perceived stakes in the act of consumption, and raises the risk that the buyer may feel more potential anxiety after getting the phone. The paper includes a marketing strategy to counteract this anxiety.
From the Paper "Simplifying the decision making process at this stage is also a positive goal, because remorse in the post-purchase process tends to be greater if the consumer is exposed to many different options. Stressing the uniqueness of the Disney phone because of its parental screening devices and added entertainment components is an excellent strategy to help the likely target parental consumers feel better about their purchase. This will make them less apt long for another type of cell phone, or worse, to wish that they never bought a cell phone for their children at all. The superiority and uniqueness of the brand must be conveyed during the early decision-making process. Reducing later cognitive conflict in the pre-purchase stage is of vital importance because early apprehensions the greatest source of dissonance post- purchase."
Abstract This paper begins with a review of the literature on the cognitive and affective bases of behavior. The review is followed by a brief description of neural networking model of cognition. The paper concludes with an attempt to answer the central question, the purposes of affect in the neural networking model.
Introduction
Cognitive and Affective Bases of Behavior - Sampling of literature
Neural Networking Model of Cognition How can you account for the purposes of affect in a neural networking
model of cognition?
From the Paper "Neural network (NN) modeling has developed as a major component of science's attempt to understand the brain. NN modeling attempts to answer the fundamental question of how does the brain's formidable information-processing abilities emerge from the self-organizing behavior of a collection of relatively simple neurons?"
This paper provides a critique of the research paper "Does Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Hearing Impairment Improve by Hearing Aid Use?" by van Hooren et al.
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the main hypothesis of the study, "Does Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Hearing Impairment Improve by Hearing Aid Use?", can be stated as follows: while hearing aids show significant results in terms of auditory improvement, there is no proof to suggest a related improvement or increase in cognitive ability as a result of the application of a hearing aid. The writer explains that the study refers to cognitive functions such as memory, attention, executive functioning, and processing speed. The writer also explains that it should be noted at the outset that this hypothesis presupposes a connection, albeit based on prior research sources, between hearing or hearing enhancements and cognitive functioning. Thus, this is an aspect that forms part of the critique in this analysis of the paper. The writer points out that it is also suggested that the methodology used to ascertain cognitive correlation is to some extent not adequate in terms of the complexity of determining quantitatively a definite link between hearing aids and improved cognition.
From the Paper "The methodology used in this study was comparatively simple and conventionally straight-forward. In essence a relatively small number or participants were used in this study - which is also a point of contention with regard to the results and conclusion of this research. In total there were fifty-six participants (mean age 0/72.5) who were fitted with hearing aids were compared with 46 control participants (mean age 0/74.5) with an equivalent impairment, but who were not fitted with a hearing aid. The study took cognizance of a number of variables and factors that could influence the results of the experiment. These included neurocognitive tests after 12 months. However, it is also possible that these tests in terms of personality and individual psychological components were not sufficient. This aspect is possibly one of the reasons why the study did not return the expected correlation between hearing aids and cognitive improvement."
Tags: memory, attention, cognition, sensory, organ
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts various cognition principles as applied to a high school journalism class. Specifically, the paper examines situated cognition,distributed cognition,and socially shared cognition principles. The paper looks at commonalities and differences and analyzes what objectives are easily assessed from each theoretical framework.
From the Paper "The students in a 12th grade journalism class are learning interviewing skills and how to assemble a news story. The students are assigned to travel to the local government center where reporters are assembling for a statewide video-feed media conference with the governor of the state. There, they will join working reporters who will question the governor after she makes her opening remarks. Instructional Objectives: Each student will be able to: 1. Determine the newsworthiness of topics for a news stories. 2. Select the most newsworthy topic. 3. Plan and write a news story for publication on the same day. 4. Publish the edited story on the class web site as part of the school's intranet. Assessment Methods: 1. News stories will be reviewed for understanding of basic journalistic concepts taught in class."
Abstract This paper discusses IQ tests: their history, their significance and their conclusions. It discusses the first IQ tests in history and explains how the idea came about. It defines several relevant psychological terms such as cognition, intelligence, thinking, and more. It studies the environmental and genetic causes of low cognitive ability: Finally, it concludes that cognition and the study of the brain will develop greatly in the future using FMRI's and other new techniques.
From the Paper "Ever since Simon and Binet developed the first intelligence test in 1905, the field of psychology has maintained a strong interest in the nature of intelligence. How do we think? Why are some people better problem solvers than others? What is cognition, the ability to think about our environment? Why are some people consistently more able to use their brains to think, to remember, and to problem-solve than others?"
An overview of cognitive behavior therapy, focusing on the roles of the therapist and patient and how it compares to other therapies used in psychology.
3,720 words (approx. 14.9 pages), 6 sources, 2006, $ 133.95
Abstract This paper discusses cognitive behavioral therapy and the elements of its practice. It also explores the therapist and patient roles of cognitive behavioral therapy, and how it relates to other therapies currently used in psychology. Adlerian therapy, person centered therapy, existential therapy, Gestalt therapy, reality therapy, solution oriented brief therapy, multi-modal therapy, feminist therapy, and rational emotion behavior therapy are discussed and contrasted to traditional cognitive behavioral therapy. Through these comparisons a focus on the central characteristics of these therapies is evident, providing a framework for patients and professionals to determine which therapy would be most effective for the needs of particular patients.
