Abstract This paper explores an emerging technology known as the glass cockpit and explains the human factors that influence the implementation of this technology. This discourse describes the theoretical issues of the glass cockpit technology and the human factors associated with the invention and subsequent implementation of the technology. It also focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of the technology. The writer investigates the development of the technology and compares the glass cockpit technology with the traditional cockpit. It also discusses the military and civilian uses of the technology. Finally it explores the future trends of the glass cockpit.
From the Paper "The term "Glass Cockpit" describes a cockpit in which all of the displays are painted onto the glass of a computer screen. Glass cockpits replace a number of, switches, gauges, and indicators with automated display systems. The use of computers to manage the on-board systems, allows pilots to describe what they want to observe at the exact time that they want to observe the indicator. Glass cockpits have allowed contemporary aircraft to require only two crewmembers as an alternative to the three needed by traditional cockpits. (Krell)"
Abstract This paper takes a general look at the levels of management in a cockpit of commercial airlines. It discusses the authority the captain holds over the first officer in the cockpit. The writer explains that the dynamics of the relationships in an airline cockpit are varied, but the captain always holds specific authority over the other crew including the first officer. The captain's authority in the cockpit is necessary for a number of reasons, but when it reaches a point where the first officer is afraid to challenge the captain's command and decisions, then the results can be devastating and even deadly.
From the Paper "This acknowledged authority relates directly to aircraft regulations as well as history and accepted norms in the industry. The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) states that ultimately, the captain holds the final authority over the crew and the airplane. The CFR also demands captains have considerable more flight time than first officers. Captains must have at least 1500 hours, while first officers only require 200 hours (Tarnow 112). In addition to the CFR rules, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) also have certain cockpit rules which include "'the pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft' (1996 CFR, Paragraph 91.3)" (Tarnow 113). However, the rules also state that during an emergency, the pilot can deviate from these rules. Thus, the captain is much more experienced in flight matters, and his authority is often "gold" in the airline cockpit."
Abstract This paper analyzes the pitfalls of automation within the cockpit. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of automation and the problems that can be created by a pilot relying too heavily on automation. The paper examines whether cockpit automation is worthwhile overall or whether the inherent problems in automation are overtaking the underlying benefits.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automation
Studies Conducted to Analyze the Impact of Automation within the Cockpit, with Suitable Examples
The Need to Bring in Automation
Accidents that Took Place because of Automation within the Cockpit Conclusion
From the Paper "In conclusion, it must be said that although there are differing views on whether automation is really essential to the aviation industry in general and to the cockpit in particular, it is true that without automation, the human beings manning the aircraft would feel much more burdened and stressed than if a part of their duties were to be taken over by automation. Therefore, it is clear that although automation can indeed bring with it several problems of the nature described in this paper, it may be very difficult in this technology advanced world of today for a pilot to manage his aircraft without the aid of a computer. The secret may be that the pilot must not depend too much on the automation; he must remain aware and wary at all times of what is happening within the aircraft when he is manning it. This would put him into a better position of being able to handle a problem when it arose, instead of flailing helplessly when the aircraft was crashing. Automation must be, therefore, brought in to the cockpit, but within certain specific limits, so that the disadvantages or automation do not outweigh the advantages."
Abstract The CRM (Cockpit Resource Management) concept is an outcome of the work of a group of human factors practitioners in the United States in the analysis of, and response to, "crew-caused" air transport crashes and other incidents. This paper presents a discussion of cockpit resource management (CRM). Some years ago, several major airlines implemented official cockpit resource management (CRM) programs. The paper shows that the implementation of these programs was motivated by desires to improve the safety of in-flight operations. Eventually, program objectives were expanded to include the efficient use of resources available to in-flight crews.
Table of Contents:
Analytical Exposition
Derivation of CRM
Opposition to CRM
CRM and Flight Crew Behavior
Response of Airline Management
The Objective of CRM
CRM and the Team Concept
Critical Context
Team-Based Organization
Implementing Team-Based Organization
Self-Managed Teams
Socio-Technical Systems
Assessing STS
Applying STS
Applying CRM at Continental Airlines
Integrative Conclusion
CRM Outcomes
CRM and the Future
Enhanced Personal Awareness
Bibliography
From the Paper "CRM is designed to enhance management practices in the event of emergency. A variation on the CRM concept is the crew resource management approach, which includes in-flight personnel other than those personnel who perform their functions in the cockpit of the aircraft. CRM controls the division of responsibilities during a flight. CRM can be interpreted broadly to include the relationship between the pilot and the machinery as well as among the flight crew members. Although CRM is commonly thought of as coordination between or among multi-pilot crews, in its larger sense it is much more than that activity. CRM encompasses the interpersonal relationship between a pilot and her or his passengers and between a pilot and the air traffic control (ATC) personnel with whom he or she deals. In its broadest sense, CRM refers not only to the interaction between human beings, but also the interaction of a pilot with the technology of the aircraft."
Abstract This paper discusses safety in the 21st century and enhancing it by focusing on cabin and cockpit safety. Presently, the only automated systems required on board modern aircraft are the automatic fire detection systems for the engines and cargo compartments receptacle fire bottles. Manually operated extinguishers are provided for the engine and cargo areas. Pilot-controlled fire extinguishing systems exist for both these areas. Some aircraft have overheat detection in the avionics compartments, but no automated fire extinguishing system. Integrated systems are needed to detect and extinguish fires in aircraft, wherever they occur, before they can damage the aircraft or its systems. Since 1996, there have been three major aircraft accidents involving fire in the cockpit and cabin. Two had no fire detection systems; those accidents were fatal. The aircraft involved in the third accident had smoke detection that enabled the crew to land before the aircraft was severely damaged. This should make it clear that fire detection saves lives.
From the Paper "e industry has not kept pace with the demand put on it by significant changes to the design of electrical systems on airplanes. There needs to be a great deal of work done to prevent electrical fires from the beginning. We also need systems designed to provide fire detection and suppression in all the possible fire regions in the airplane fuselage, both accessible and inaccessible. Failure to execute these changes will put crews and passengers at an unnecessarily risk to experience a catastrophic in-flight fire, a terrible fate experienced by too many already. We can prevent in-flight fire catastrophes if we want to."
Abstract The author of this paper shows how the technologies critical to the U.S. for new weapons systems have become increasingly available in the global marketplace and thus are accessible to its potential adversaries as well. The paper provides an extensive review of the artificial intelligent systems currently used by the U.S. military aviation and their advantages.
From the Paper "It is CIE's job to determine what these actions mean right now, in the current situation. This explanation is formed based on current understanding of intent, situations in the external world, and knowledge about acceptable behavior in the cockpit.
"Understanding crew intentions is really only one function of CIE that ensures human-centered RPA behavior. CIE also dynamically identifies conflicts between the current crew intentions and RPA activities as posted by RPA's internal Task Network Architecture (TNA) scheduler. The TNA is the mechanism that coordinates RPA aiding activities. CIE can identify potentially counterproductive RPA behaviors and transmit an indication of conflict and also type of conflict so that the RPA Task Network can possibly identify a way to complete its scheduled tasks without being counterproductive to the crew's objectives."
Abstract Since the horrific events of September 11, 2001, there has been a great deal of debate on whether or not airline pilots should be armed in the cockpit. With the U.S. waging a global war on terrorism, it may be possible that terrorists will retaliate against the U.S., and they may use airliners again. This paper argues in favor of allowing airline pilots to be armed in the cockpit. This paper covers both sides of the argument and presents unbiased views, as well. Quotes from U.S. Congressmen also included in the paper.
From the Paper "Another argument in favor of arming pilots is that they are, psychologically, among the most highly trained and level-headed professionals in the world. They are accustomed to making critical ? and sometimes life-saving ? decisions in a split second, so arming them would make sense, according to the APSA. In addition, Senator Zell Miller (D-Ga.) strongly supports passing an amendment in favor of pilots carrying guns. Senator Miller believes it is logical to allow pilots to be armed. Senator Miller stated, "Will someone please explain to me the logic that says we can trust someone with a Boeing 747 in bad weather, but not with a Glock 9 millimeter"? (Sen. Miller, Chicago Tribune)"
Abstract This paper argues for the institution of commercial pilots carrying arms. It shows that since the 9/11 attacks, people willing to fly on commercial airlines have drastically decreased. It argues that in order for the airline industry to be able to regain these figures and ensure passengers and crew that the skies are indeed friendly, commercial airline pilots need to be able to carry weapons, or have access to a weapon within the cockpit.
From the Paper "Airlines have undertaken various methods to ensure the cockpit is safe from any hijacker. These measures have included barring the cockpit and making it impenetrable to a terrorist on-board. While this is a positive first step, it does not relieve travelers of their worries, and in fact, alienates crew and passengers from the pilots. This kind of alienation does not increase the likelihood of someone choosing to fly over taking the train. It only sends out a subliminal message to passengers that flying is still dangerous because of the probability of a terrorist attack on a plane."
Abstract The paper explains that computer aided design (CAD) involves the application of computer technology to the design of the cockpit so that it is more ergonomic and more sensitive to the characteristics of different pilots. The paper relates that, on the whole, CAD technology is an enormous improvement on older aviation design because it allows designers to visualize situations in three-dimensionality throughout the design process. The paper discusses the CAD-based ergonomic analysis programs that allow researchers to create accurate 3-D human models that measure the impact of ergonomics on the safety and reliability of products, equipment and facilities. The paper includes graphs, tables and illustrations.
Outline:
Chapter I: Introduction
Chapter II: Review of Related Literature
Chapter III:Methodology
Chapter IV: Results
Chapter V: Discussion
Chapter VI: Conclusion
Chapter VII: Recommendations
From the Paper "Aircraft accidents that lead to loss of lives receive the highest level of attention in the aviation industry. There are many different causes for aircraft accidents that occur on an everyday basis in the aviation industry, which range from pilot errors to mechanical challenges. Some of those errors are minor, but others can have devastating effects. Pilot errors can be minimized by utilizing adequate tools and various analyses. Human factors are one of the methods that would improve safety. The term "human factors" has grown drastically, and has become more popular as the commercial aviation industry realized that human errors underlies most aviation accidents and incidents, rather than mechanical failure (Greaber 1999)."
Abstract This paper examines the impact of newly integrated computer-aided design (CAD) systems in improving safety factors in the aviation industry by looking at where it can be improved. The paper looks at how CAD has incorporated the human factors principle - that is, the type of people who use the technology - into the design-making process. The paper explains that on the whole, CAD technology is an enormous improvement over older aviation design because it allows designers to visualize situations in three-dimensionality throughout the design process. CAD can provide a very good visualization overview of human interaction with the product (in this case, the pilot user interface of a cockpit). The paper also explains that CAD technology is an excellent tool for designing pilot user interfaces because it saves time and money, and CAD technology is infinitely superior to the research tools that preceded it, because it allows designers to see hypothetical human reactions to environmental stimuli in three dimension. The paper then points out that, CAD is not so intuitive that it can anticipate every conceivable human reaction that might result from a particular situation. The writer believes, therefore, that there remains a need for live testing with actual people.
Table of Contents:
Chapter I: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Limitations
Definition of Acronyms and Terms
Chapter II: Review of Related Literature
Chapter III: Methodology
Research Design
Survey Model
Chapter IV: Results
Chapter V: Discussion
Chapter VI: Conclusion
Chapter VII: Recommendations
Appended: SPSS Version 11.0 (Student Version) Data Output Files
Excel Spreadsheet Analysis
From the Paper "Whenever a study examines new technology, there will be some limitations. Today, CAD technology offers the promise of creating cockpit devices that will accommodate pilots of every skill level and idiosyncrasy; although a CAD-based ergonomic analysis program allows for the creation of accurate, 3-D human models, it seems extremely unlikely that any computer program can truly simulate the enormous range of abnormal responses that can be expected of different human beings. Therefore, human subjects are desirable in assessing the effectiveness of different products within the cockpit - and finding an appropriate sample group is not easy. It is extremely difficult to assemble a representative sampling of different pilots (in simulated conditions, of course) with the intent of measuring the capability of CAD in avoiding in-air tragedies."
Abstract The paper focuses on situation awareness, communication skills, teamwork, task allocation and decision-making based upon a comprehensive knowledge of standard operating procedures upon which crew resource management (CRM) is based. The paper points out that, because of the human factor in flying, CRM training often includes error management too. The paper therefore shows how crew resource management implies a non-judgmental environment in the cockpit that eliminates clashes of ego that are based on power hierarchies.
From the Paper "Crew resource management reflects basic principles of human communications but applied directly within the unique cockpit environment. Cockpit mismanagement and conflict are major culprits in aviation accidents: "failures of interpersonal communications, decision making, and leadership" are responsible for most errors (Helmreich, Merritt, & Wilhelm 1999). Interpersonal strife, miscommunication, and errors in judgment are some of the areas crew resource management can address. A National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) workshop introduced the importance of crew resource management (CRM) in 1979 and since then CRM has helped avert a "significant" number of aviation accidents (American Psychological Association, 2004). The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA 2004) calls CRM an "integral part of training and operations.""
Abstract This paper focuses on the airline transport and airport security anti-terrorist steps recently implemented. Three policies were introduced by President Bush - "Federal Grant Program to Strengthen Aircraft Security"; "Expanded Federal Air Marshal Program" and increased passenger security while in the airport. It looks at the advantages and disadvantages of these programs.
From the Paper "The aftermath of the World Trade Center bombing in New York City last September 11, 2001 made the US government formulate numerous precautions and measures that will prevent and eliminate the possibility of a terrorist attack to happen again. One of the preventive measures the US government has set up was to think of national policies in airline transportations and airports that will bring security and safety to the consumers and crew of the airline company. Three major steps were delivered by US President George W. Bush that will help attain the said objectives, that of the people and crew's safety and security."
From the Paper "Computers have become part of our everyday lives, often in ways of which we are unaware. Aside from the obvious use of computers in business and industry, computers are used in our automobiles, in retail stores, as burglar alarm systems and even in our videotape machines. Few professions have not been affected by the introduction of computers; in some cases, computers have completely replaced human employees. Many companies have used computers to improve their efficiency and productivity. Because computers are able to process thousands of bits of information very quickly and with extreme accuracy, their use has been especially welcomed in areas where lives are at stake, such as in medicine. In the aviation industry, computers have long been used to improve navigation and to provide better information to pilots."
Completed research examines organizational theory, group decision making and acceptance of CRM programs by in-flight crews. Examines purpose, effects, problems, training, review of literature, methodology and questionnaire. Includes tables.
1,215 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 52 sources, 1999, $ 135.95
Abstract The objective of this study was to assess strength of the support for and opposition to the CRM concept within the airline industry in 1997. This objective included an identification of the sources of such support and opposition
From the Paper "AN ASSESSMENT OF THE COCKPIT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CONCEPT
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to assess strength of the support for and opposition to the CRM concept within the airline industry in 1997. This objective included an identification of the sources of such support and opposition.
The research design involved the collection of data from three groups?airline managerial personnel, airline captains, airline cockpit personnel other than captains, and airline in-flight personnel other than cockpit personnel. The research design, which was exploratory in character, called for a comparison of the reactions of these groups to the CRM concept. Further, the research design provided for the comparison of reactions to the CRM concept within these groups on the basis of ..."
Examined in terms of the requirements, types, design, technology, primary & secondary lighting, role of the operator, night vision goggles, glass cockpit and the future.
2,475 words (approx. 9.9 pages), 12 sources, 1994, $ 87.95
From the Paper " Aircraft Interior Lighting Systems
The primary goal of any aircraft interior lighting system is to provide the aviator with adequate visual performance. Present cockpit designs are currently undergoing rapid change. Various sophisticated technological systems are simultaneously attaining a state of maturation. Such advances as night vision goggles and the glass cockpit will require significant future innovation in cockpit lighting strategies.
There are two different dimensions to aircraft interior lighting. These comprise the micro and the macro aspects. Micro level concerns involve, for example, the following: individual lighting requirements, lighting design options, user technique, and lighting system evaluation. In contrast, the macro aspect relates to system design considerations. These may include.."
