Abstract
The paper posits that in the current climate, as efforts are being made to move away from burning fossil fuels for energy, it would be useful to recall the history of the use and then the lessening of the use of coal. The paper discusses how coal continues to be a necessity for heating in much of the world, but the prevalence of coal as a fuel has diminished since the time when that form of energy was primary, especially during the Industrial Revolution in Europe, and before the era of oil production.

From the Paper
"In the current climate, as efforts are being made to move away from burning fossil fuels for energy, it would be useful to recall the history of the use and then the lessening of the use of coal. Coal continues to be a necessity for heating in much of the world, but the prevalence of coal as a fuel has diminished since the time when that form of energy was primary, especially during the Industrial Revolution in Europe, and before the era of oil production. Peter N. Stearns defines the Industrial Revolution as "the application of new sources of power to the production process, achieved with transmission equipment necessary to apply this power to manufacturing" (5), and the key..."

Tags:coal, economy, society

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that there has been much debate about the best way to achieve energy independence in the West in recent years. Rising fossil fuel costs have made the issue of environmental sustainability even more acute. The writer discusses that in particular, volatility in the natural gas market has made coal a much more attractive means for producing electricity, at least from an economic standpoint. The writer discusses whether or not coal power can ever become a sustainable technology.

Tags:coal, sustainability, environment

Abstract
The following paper gives the reader a brief history of coal and its uses. It also analyzes the refining technique known as the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle or IGCC as well as some history and new technologies associated with this fossil fuel.

From the Paper
"Coal is a sedimentary organic rock that contains a lot of carbon, typically between 40 and 90 percent carbon by weight. Ancient plants and animals accumulating in moist peat bogs form coal. As plants die off in a wet area, they pile up into peat. It takes between 4,000 and 100,000 years for one meter of peat to accumulate. This process happens best in river deltas or coastal plains. Over time, further deposits compress these peat seams and the carbon content of the coal is concentrated. The older the coal gets, generally, the harder and blacker it gets. There are four "ranks" of coal. Listed from lowest to highest rank, they are: lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Rank is determined by energy content and chemical composition. Lignite is the youngest form of coal and is soft and brown, not much different than dried peat. Lignite has a low energy content, typically about 13 million Btu per ton. The carbon content is low also, around 40 percent. Lignite is typically used only when higher grades of coal are not available or affordable. Subbituminous coal is common in the US. It has an energy content of about 18 million Btu per ton, and is used mostly in coal-fired power plants. Bituminous coal is the most widespread form in the US and is high in energy content, averaging 24 million Btu per ton. Bituminous and subbituminous account for most coal use in America. The hardest coal, anthracite, is found mostly in Pennsylvania, but most supplies of anthracite there have been exhausted. The energy content is high, around 23 million Btu per ton, but it tends to have a high sulfur content. It is more than 90 percent carbon. "

Tags:coal, combined, cycle, gasification, integrated, gas, refined, mine, minerals, rocks

Abstract
This paper begins with a description of the appearance and composition of coal and then takes a look at the history of coal as an energy source. The paper also discusses the negative effects of using coal as an energy source, explains how coal is mined, looks at the use and mining of coal from an economic perspective and looks at the advantages of using coal as an energy source.

From the Paper
"Man has always aimed to acquire a fuel source that would be beneficial for the community. One such fuel that man stumbled upon was coal. "Coal has been used for heating since the cave man" (A Brief History of Coal Use). There are two types of mining that take place in order to acquire coal. One is an underground mining and the other being an open-pit mining. Coal is a sedimentary rock that is black or brownish black in color. Primarily it is composed of carbon and has many other elements in it including sulfur. The formation of coal is also a highly interesting procedure and it is formed from the remains of the plants that have been chemically altered, hardened, compacted as well as metamorphosed by pressure and heat over geologic time. There are four types of coal depending on the length of time they have been exposed to the geological processes. The lowest quality of coal is 'Lignite' which is also at times referred to as brown coal. Its use is exclusively reserved as fuel for steam-electric power. A compact form of lignite which is polished is known as 'Jet' and its use since the Iron Age has been as an ornament. The next level up is the 'Sub-bituminous' coal and its properties range from lignite to bituminous coal. Its primary purpose is the same as that of lignite. 'Bituminous' is normally black in color and is a dense coal. Apart from being used as fuel in steam-electric power generation, it is also used for heat and power applications in order to make coke. The highest quality coal is 'Anthracite' and it is used primarily for space heating in residential as well as commercial uses."

Tags:mined, expansion, industry, warm, hoams, drive, railways, steamships, power, factories

Abstract
The paper overviews the history of the development of coal mining methods in the Appalachian regions. The paper looks at underground mining, strip mining and mountaintop removal mining (MRM) as well as the problem of inadequately controlled and managed coal slurry impoundments and slag heaps. The paper also describes the harmful effects of these methods of mining on the environment. In addition, the paper refers to many studies that all emphasize the fact that a more harmonious balance between industrial coal mining and the environment needs to established.

Outline:
Introduction
The Environmental History of Appalachian Coal Mining
Environmental Impact of Coal Mining in the Appalachians
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The issue of coal mining in the Appalachian regions has in recent years been the cause of much debate and contention. The central concern in this debate is the dramatic and severe impact that coal mining has had on the environment of the region. In the age of global warming and climate change the issue of the devastation of the natural environment through mining methods such as mountaintop removal mining (MRM) tends to evoke strong and critical responses."

Tags:underground, strip, mountaintop, removal, mining, slurry, impoundments, slag, heaps

Abstract
The paper explores whether or not coal power can ever become a sustainable technology. The paper defines sustainability and explains that although coal power plants pollute the atmosphere, new technologies have made the idea of environmentally responsible coal power plants a possibility. The paper concludes that the use of coal in hyper-efficient gasification plants seems to be a viable, sustainable option.

From the Paper
"First we must articulate a conception of sustainability, a definition if you will. Conclusions about coal's sustainability will be largely arbitrary unless we establish from the outset a clear sense of what it means to be sustainable. This will provide the framework with which coal's potential to be a sustainable option can be evaluated. It is naive to think that sustainability is defined as an either-or proposition. Too often, definitions of sustainability imagine that a process, technology, or ideology is either sustainable or it is not."

Tags:gasification, power, plant, pollution, efficiency, fossil, fuel

Abstract
The paper discusses shifts and price elasticity of supply and demand, positive and negative externalities, wage inequality and monetary and fiscal policies and their impact on the coal mining industry. The paper predicts that coal production will likely rise while worker pay and employment in the coal mining industry will shrink in the next decade.

Outline:
Shifts and Price Elasticity of Supply and Demand
Positive and Negative Externalities
Wage Inequality
Monetary and Fiscal Policies
Summary and Conclusion

From the Paper
"The coal mining industry in the United States is comprised of approximately 1,000 companies operating approximately 1,500 mines, with approximate combined annual revenue of $25 billion. Some of the larger producers are Peabody Energy, Arch Coal and Massey Energy. Over the past decade, the coal mining industry has become greatly consolidated and presently sixty-five percent of the market is owned by approximately ten companies with each company operating a single coalmine with the size of the mines varying a great deal. Larger operations produce over 1 million tons of coal annually. According to Hoover's website in the work entitled: "Industry Overview: Coal Mining" "Demand comes mainly from generators of electricity. Profitability depends on efficient operations, as the product is a commodity sold on the basis of price." (2008) "

Tags:shifts, price, elasticity, supply, demand, externalities, wage, inequality, fiscal, policies

Abstract
This paper discusses the use of coal as a fuel. The paper reviews the properties of coal and the different mining methods. The paper also discusses the impact the use of coal has on the environment.

From the Paper
"One way to lower down the carbon dioxide production of an energy plant is by making it more efficient, that is generating more energy with less fuel. A process called gasification converts coal to gas. This process is about 40 percent efficient as opposed to a steam driven coal plant with an efficiency of about 36 percent. However for the short run and maybe the long run as well, the most important new source of energy from the Rocky Mountain West will be coal. Earlier in the century small amounts of western coal were used to power steam locomotives. With the introduction of diesels after World War II, however, western coal production dropped off to very minimal levels. Then, in the early 1970s transportation of low-sulfur western coal to new coal-burning power plants in parts of the Midwest became economic. Because of environmental regulations, it had become cheaper to import western coal than to install the expensive scrubbers needed to clean high-sulfur eastern and mid-western coal. "

Tags:sulfur, fuel, electricity, power, carbon, dioxide

Abstract
This paper examines the environmental problems that occur due to emissions from coal-fired power plants. The paper focuses on the older power plants in the Great Lakes region. The paper discusses the problem and explores solutions to rectify the situation. The paper contends that, despite pollution issues, there are many reasons to support coal-fired power plants, and therefore, the most promising solution involves tighter regulation of coal-fired power plants, particularly reducing the pollution caused by older plants, such as those in the Great Lakes area.

From the Paper
"Out of the entire electric industry, coal-fired power plants contribute 96% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 93% of nitrogen oxide emissions, 88% of carbon dioxide emissions, and 99% of mercury emissions (Dirty coal power). Today, there are fish consumption advisories for mercury contamination in 45 states and 20% of American women of childbearing age have levels of mercury that exceed what is considered safe for a fetus (Mercury from coal-fired power plants). Coal-fired power plants is responsible for over 90% of mercury contamination in the Great Lakes (Gluckman, 2004) Further, EPA studies reveal that air pollution from coal-fired power plants triggers asthma attacks, bronchitis, and heart disease, and contributes to about 30,000 premature deaths a year (New source review/ coal-fired power plants)."

Tags:mercury, emissions, pollution

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that within the global environment there are nearly always situations and circumstances of special interest within the environmental sciences, as changes in industry occur all over the world and have varying impacts on the environment, both locally and globally. The writer points out that one issue of just such importance and of particular personal importance is the issue of Coal Mining in Hunter Valley New South Wales, Australia. The writer discusses the proposed development of an open pit coal mine in one of the few remaining tracks of naturally preserved land in the region, in fact the largest containing nearly 600 living elements of flora and fauna many of which are threatened, and the global nature of the debate that has ensued. The writer notes that conclusion of the matter is likely to end with approval for the Centennial Mining Co., as they, as well as most others, are assured that their extensive work to develop the plans and impact reports for the Anvil mine location will result in success since the state government is clearly projected to approve the development of the mine in Anvil Hill.

Outline:
Introduction
Background
Proposal For Change

From the Paper
"One of the most challenging issues at work today in the environmental sciences is of coarse sustainable development. We stand at the precipice of a period of global transition, where challenges to the old, including but not limited to challenges to the global dependence on fossil fuels and a demand to transition to sustainable resources are in conflict. The transition will surely prove to be a difficult one, even though it would not seem that it should be given the seriousness of the environmental issues at hand. It is proposed by many environmental scientists that environmental devastation caused in part by the emissions of greenhouse gasses that deplete the earths protection from the sun and will eventually lead to mass climate change that could create a situation of extinction not only for the environment but for humans, much like the one theoretical extinction of historical proportions that are currently being studied, that of the dinosaurs. The transition is a challenge in a broad sense because the foundation of energy resources if squarely placed upon the use of fossil fuels and many individuals and organizations stand to lose a great deal in the short run for a long term goal that will likely never gain for them at all."

Tags:mine, carbon, monoxide, global