Abstract
This paper is a research paper on human cloning and specifically the legal and ethical implications as they apply to the United Kingdom and the United States. The paper begins by defining the notions implied by the word cloning and then proceeds to provide a precise analysis of the legal situation in the United Kingdom and the United States in order to facilitate an examination of the evolution of cloning in the United Kingdom as well as the contradictions that may exist between what is said and what is done in the United States. The paper contends that any discussion on cloning must take place in the international arena and not just on a national level, and that morals and ethics play an important role in the debate on cloning at both levels. Finally, the paper attempts to show the danger of the absence of legislation on cloning by giving a practical view of what is currently possible. This paper includes colour photographs and charts.

Outline:
Introduction
Basic Notions
Reproductive Cloning
National Laws In Force And The Influence Of International Organisations9
The Situation In The United Kingdom
The Situation In The United States
The International Organisations' Approach
The Implications Of Ethics
Generalities On Moral Issue
Identity Issue
Religions' Views On Cloning
Clonaid
Conclusion
Information Requests Mails
Unsuccessful Attempts To Obtain Information
E-Mail Deleted Without Being Read
Adolph Grunbaum
The Experts Actively Involved In Our Project
V.J. Norris And Michael W. Shaw, University Of Reading (United Kingdom)
Jeff Macmahan And Katrien Devolder
Rosario Isasi, Jd, Mph, Faculty Of Law, Montreal University
Bilbliography
Annexes

From the Paper
"In 2001, the United Kingdom passed what became one of the most liberal laws on human cloning. This may appear contradictory with what has been said in the introduction of this study, i.e. that Britain was the first nation set to ban cloning although they were the first to have legalised it. Indeed, this might have been perceived as an evolution and it would have been interesting to see why such an evolution occurred: why do people who first authorised cloning then changed their mind and finally decided to ban it? The fact is that the new piece of legislation actually covers reproductive cloning and not therapeutic cloning. However, since the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act of 1990, therapeutic cloning is legal for scientists who have been granted a state licence by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. The law allows cloning and growth of human embryos up to fourteen days for research purposes. What is now expressly prohibited with the law of 2001 is the transfer of cloned embryos into a woman's womb, but this has never been legal before 2001."

Tags:morality, ethics, cloning, legal, evolution, international, humans, animals, reproductive, genetic, DNA, in-vitro, blastocyst, embryo, research, federal

Abstract
This paper defines cloning as the production of a group of genetically identical cells or organisms, all descended from a single individual. The members of a clone have precisely the same characteristics, except where mutation and environmentally caused developmental variation have occurred. The first recorded cloning experiment took place in 1938, when a German scientist experimented by transferring a nucleus from an adult cell to an enucleated egg which resulted in the successful creation of an identical twin. This paper details the various types of artificial and natural cloning which include: Molecular cloning, cellular cloning, embryo twinning, natural regeneration, primary reproductive mode and supplementary reproductive mode. The writer of this paper also discusses the moral and ethical controversy surrounding genetic cloning.

From the Paper
"Some examples of cloning from nature are the primary reproductive mode and supplementary reproductive mode. The primary reproductive mode occurs in species whose reproduction is strictly asexual; each population consists of one or more clones, depending on the number of individuals in the colony there was to start. Such species include all bacteria and blue-green bacteria, most protozoans, algae, some yeast, and even some higher plants and animals, such as dandelions and flatworms. Supplementary reproductive mode occurs in some algae, which reproduce sexually and asexually. Those individuals formed by asexual reproduction, called zoospores constitute a clone. In the club mosses and some higher plants, a runner, or stem, grows horizontally along the surface of the soil and at intervals produces roots and upright stalks. When the sections of stem between stalks disintegrate, the separated individuals constitute a clone."

Tags:genetic, engineering, cloning, research, animal, experiment, controversy, ban, human

Abstract
This paper discusses the debate over human cloning which erupted with the "birth" of Dolly in 1997. The author of the paper determines that the advantages of cloning humans far outweigh the risks. It argues that cloning will help to save lives, it will lead to cures for diseases and it will help couples overcome the obstacles of infertility.

From the Paper
"Ever since Dolly appeared on the international science stage on February there has been a great debate over whether or not the benefits of cloning humans would outweigh the risks and for some the ethical objections of genetic manipulation ..."

Tags:cloning, science, reproduction, infertility, therapeutic cloning, reproductive cloning, DNA, genetic, gene cloning, cellular cloning

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of cloning and an analysis of the potential benefits to be realized through cloning technology. An assessment of the possible negative consequences and the impact of cloning technology is followed by a discussion of possible alternative approaches. The paper then presents the viewpoints of opponents to cloning. A summary of the research and salient findings are presented in the conclusion.

Outline:
Introduction
Review and Analysis
History and Background of Cloning
Possible Negative Consequences and their Consequences
Alternative Solutions
Rebuttals of Opponents
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Cloning is a fundamental component of the biological processes of the majority of living things because the body cells of plants and animals are actually clones that are derived from the mitosis of a single fertilized egg (Baird, 2002). According to this author, "A clone is the name for a group of organisms or other living matter with exactly the same genetic material. The word clone has been applied to cells as well as to organisms, so a group of cells stemming from a single cell is also called a clone. Cloning is the production of an exact genetic duplicate of a living organism or cell" (Baird, 2002, p. 20). For many observers today, though, the processes involved in cloning can be confusing and may not be able to be satisfied with a simple definition. Nevertheless, cloning frequently takes place in the natural world without any human involvement; for instance, in humans and other higher animals, clones develop naturally through genetically identical multiple births (Baird, 2002). Single-celled organisms including bacteria, protozoa, and yeast, also produce genetically identical offspring through asexual reproduction; offspring from these organisms develop from only one parent and are therefore considered to be clones (Baird, 2002). Likewise, plants are able to reproduce asexually through a process called vegetative propagation and a number of plants exhibit this ability by producing suckers, tubers, or bulbs to colonize the area surrounding the parent. In addition, simple animals such as hydras and flatworms can be cloned through asexual reproduction or the process of regeneration (Baird, 2002). "

Tags:cloning, human, cloning, stem, cell, research

Abstract
This paper discusses recent developments and arguments in the human cell cloning debate. The author examines the anti-cloning argument, and then shifts to pro-cloning. The paper includes sources such as the Surgeon General and Dr. Jose Cibelli, the first person to clone a human embryo, as well as good sources for the cloning opposition. The paper also includes many recent developments in the cloning process.

From the Paper
"Human cloning is one of those issues where there are benefits and risks, but the benefits are prominent enough that the risks pale in comparison. There is no argument that cloning is a failsafe technology that cannot be manipulated to facilitate immoral uses, but most things can be used immorally in the wrong hands. In the right hands, human cloning technology can benefit the world and society in unprecedented ways. Cloning is an unexplored territory that must be searched and cultivated, because astounding advances are bound to be produced. As for what God would say about humans cloning humans, Robert Winston put it best when he said, '?Part of that divine spark is our intelligence and our inventiveness and that was actually a God-given tool, and that to fail to use that actually is a mistake."

Tags:anti, carbon, cell, cibelli, clone, cloning, copy, dna, dolly, embryo, engineering, genetic, human, humans, pro, roslin, stem, therapeutic

Abstract
This paper examines the issue of cloning and its potential effects on society. Animal, reproductive, and stem cell cloning are discussed. The paper also analyzes the moral and ethical implications of cloning.

From the Paper
"Advances in genetic technology have brought cloning into the limelight as a means of genetically engineering cells to produce exact copies of mammals by using the complete genetic material of a regular body somatic cell. Cloning How to Make Identical Genomes: A fairly straightforward process, cloning consists of only five basic steps: Isolating the donor nucleus; Getting unfertilized eggs; Removing an egg's nucleus; Inserting a donor nucleus into the egg to fertilize it; Placing the fertilized egg into the womb..."

Tags:cloning, society, Dolly the Sheep, diabetes, ethics, morals, reproductive cloning, animal cloning, stem cells

Abstract
This paper examines modern cloning technology in light of the trepidation to this process as presented in the novel "Brave New World." The paper compares Aldous Huxley's image of cloning in "Brave New World" to the controversies this process inspires today. The paper contends that although today's cloning does not hold the place in society that it did in Huxley's work, the process must still be monitored and controlled. Also described are the various types of cloning and the benefits cloning can offer humanity.

From the Paper
" While there are different types of cloning, cloning itself is creating an identical copy of something. DNA cloning for instance is a common practice in biological labs since the 1970s and involves "the transfer of a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element such as a bacterial plasmid" (Human Genome Project 2006). Other types of cloning involve creating entirely new organisms and this is known as reproductive cloning as it "generates an animal that has the same exact DNA as another" (Human Genome Project 2006). Cloning is a broad term that comes to mean some kind of reproduction asexually."

Tags:cloning, Brave, New, World, Bokanovsky, Process, Aldous, Huxley, stem, cell, research

Abstract
In this article, the writer argues against cloning. The writer describes the kinds of cloning that have been used. Various objections to cloning including moral, ethical and technological concerns are examined in this paper. The writer also discusses controversial types of cloning, including reproductive and therapeutic cloning.

From the Paper
"Three kinds of cloning have been used; molecular cloning for genetic research in which scientists must make millions of identical copies of genes of molecular size, in order to have sufficient material for testing; cell cloning which produces cell-lines with the same properties; and nuclear-cell transplantation which puts nuclei from the cells of early pre-implantation embryos into unfertilized eggs from which the nuclei have been removed. The first two kinds of cloning are often called research cloning. The third kind is called reproductive cloning."

Tags:Cloning, Reproduction

Abstract
This paper discusses the ethical implications of therapeutic and reproductive cloning, arguing that the procedures are unethical. The paper examines the physical, psychosocial and other reasons that question the ethics of the practice of cloning.

From the Paper
"Human cloning is an issue that has received increased consideration in recent years with the success of cloning in lower animals. Although technology exists that could be used to effect human cloning, serious questions have been raised regarding its ethical implications. This paper will argue that both therapeutic and reproductive human cloning are unethical and will examine the physical, psychosocial and other reasons that the ethics of the practice have been called into question. The ability to clone a..."

Tags:ethics, human cloning, therapeutic cloning, reproductive cloning, Dolly the sheep

Abstract
A thorough discussion of the history and pros and cons of cloning in general. This paper supports cloning humans to help humanity so long as the ability is not abused. Topics presented include natural clones and philosophical, physical, medical and various other issues.

From the Paper
"The word "cloning" once brought to mind a vast array of ideas and thoughts often possible only within the context of science fiction, and yet our technology has now reached a stage in which possibility has become reality. In 1996, the first successful mammalian clone was created and named Dolly - a sheep born asexually who had the exact same genetic sequence as her mother (Hawker). Recently, in 2001 a human embryo was cloned and grew to the 6 cell stage before it died (Hill). These two events have raised an enormous amount of questions surrounding the ethics and benefits of cloning. Even though cloning exists in nature (Identical Twins, bacteria, most unicellular organisms, plants not from seeds, some algae and fungi, many Invertebrates are all natural clones), there is a sense of taking evolution and nature into our own hands by cloning most especially in context to cloning human beings (Hawker). There are strong arguments both for and against cloning, but I believe cloning is only feasible to help humanity so long as it is not abused."

Tags:anthropology, clone, clones, cloning, dolly, humanity, humans, infertility, medical, nature, nurture, science, sheep, technology, vitro, vs