Abstract
This paper discusses the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM), a destructive, invasive procedure that is usually performed on girls before puberty where part or all of the clitoris is surgically removed, leaving girls with reduced or no sexual feeling. FGM originated in Africa and remains a cultural and not a religious practice. It examines the reasoning behind the practice as well as the cultural and religious ideas in Africa and outlines the different forms it takes depending on the culture.

From the Paper
"Because of poverty and lack of medical facilities, the procedure is frequently done under less than hygienic conditions, and often without anesthetic by other than medically trained personnel. Anesthesia is rarely used and razor blades, knives or scissors are usually the instruments used. In the rural Mossi areas of Burkina Faso, group female circumcisions are scheduled every three years in many villages. Girls aged from 5 to 8 are assembled by their mothers into groups of up to 20."

Tags:clitoris, Burkina, Faso, circumcision, Mossi

Abstract
The paper discusses female circumcision that is also known as female genital mutilation (FGM), because unlike male circumcision, which only removes mainly benign foreskin, female circumcision may involve removing the clitoral hood, the labia, and even the entire clitoris. The paper relates that this can result in a total loss of genital sensation and inability to experience any sexual pleasure whatsoever. The paper further relates that it can also be very dangerous and many females actually perish after the procedure from developing raging infections. Nevertheless, the paper notes that the literature is skewed and some women are happy to endure the procedure and would proscribe it for their daughters as well. The paper then discusses how although the United States and other Westernized countries find this type of procedure barbaric, it is culturally acceptable in the locales it is performed.

From the Paper
"Female circumcision is a procedure that is practiced in many countries on the African continent. Another name for the procedure is female genital mutilation (FGM) because unlike male circumcision, which only removes mainly benign foreskin, female circumcision may involve removing the clitoral hood, the labia, and even the entire clitoris. This can result in..."

Tags:fgm, circumcision, genital

Abstract
This paper explains that incest, which is one of the most taboo topics in today's society and has close ties to child abuse, involves sexual relationships between people who are genetically related to one another. The author points out that, in the Middle East, clitoridectomy, the removal of a woman's clitoris, is often performed on a girl by her own mother in response to the rampant pedophilia of the men and thus is a form of incest prevention. The paper relates that incest is often associated with in-breeding and increased rates of birth defects, but some cultures, such as the Pharaohs of Egypt, the royal family of Hawaii and the Hapsburg dynasty of Austria, encouraged inter-family marriage to strengthen their bloodlines and maintain their purity.

From the Paper
"It has been proposed that the prohibitions against incest developed as a means to prevent the gene pool from deteriorating. This theory is much disputed, with the arguments against it being backed by the nature of the various prohibitions, which, as stated earlier, often allow sexual relations between genetically related individuals. However, this argument against incest has begun to lose its efficacy through the development of effective contraception. Other reasons for the taboo against incest are based around the nature of the family. Preservation of the family unit and promotion of family wealth/power become the focus around which anti-incest prohibitions are developed."

Tags:family, pedophilia, taboo, genetics, royal

Abstract
This paper looks at the issue of gender which has become central to Black feminist literary tradition. In Walker's book, which deals with the issue of exploitation of women by men, the writer addresses problems in a global context, recognizing that women, especially black women, will be able to achieve more justice if they work together, transcending national and cultural borders. Walker's novel focuses on male brutality against women across cultural lines, specifically in the act of the "circumcision" of the clitoris.

From the Paper
"The American black female writer who does not appreciate that such hideous brutality against women is a transnational issue, and not merely limited to the "Third World" cultures where it is sanctioned by patriarchal societies and governments, cannot call herself a true feminist. Clearly, Walker's work, focusing on the cruelty and injustice of this practice, is a clear literary argument that the brutalization of women through such a practice is indeed a call to arms for all women everywhere."

Tags:gender, culture, black, men, control, circumcision

Abstract
This paper underscores that, according to the United Nations, female genital mutilation (FGM) is a violation of the basic human rights of women. Next, the author describes FGM and the cultural and religious reasons for this practice; however, the author contends there is no justification for this continued cruelty and torture of women. The paper stresses that the WHO attack on FGM through advocacy, research and guidance to health systems has not adequately halted FGM and that the organization should work harder to develop more effective ways to fight this malicious human rights violation.

From the Paper
"There are three common types of FGM: clitoridectomy, excision, infibulations, and other less common types. The clitoridectomy is the fractional or entire amputation of the clitoris (a small, sensitive and erectile part of the female genitals), and very rarely, the prepuce, the extra piece of skin surrounding the clitoris. An excision is the fractional or whole amputation of the clitoris with the labia minora; an excision may or may not even remove the labia majora . The third type of cutting, infibulations, is the narrowing of the vaginal opening by creating a casing fasten."

Tags:right clitoris alternatives unclean, pamphlet-like books

Abstract
This paper examines how female genital mutilation, or female circumcision, is a cultural practice, not a religious practice and how in many cultures, female genital mutilation serves as an initiation rite. It looks at the different kinds of circumcisions in different cultures and contends that no ethical defense can be made for preserving a cultural practice that damages women's health and interferes with their sexuality.

From the Paper
"Infibulation, also known as pharaonic circumcision, is the most severe form of female genital mutilation. It consists of a clitoridectomy and the excision of the labia minora as well as the inner layers of the labia majora. The raw edges are then sewn together with catguts or made to adhere to each other by means of thorns. The suturing together is done so that the remaining skin of the labia majora will heal together and form a bridge of scar tissue over the vaginal opening. A small piece of wood or straw is inserted into the vagina to prevent a complete occlusion, and to leave a passage for urine and menstrual flow (Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). "

Tags:infibulation, genitalia, clitoris, africa

Abstract
In this paper the author examines how Winterson addresses the issues of boundaries and desire. The author specifically looks at "Written on the Body" and tries to convey to us what physical love means through the act of making us complicit. The author suggests that Winterson does this by telling the story via a narrator who is given neither name nor gender. The author suggests the book thus serves as a personal way of investigating new avenues of sexuality and thus of love.

From the paper:

"This book is an investigation of the body of a beloved the body as the site of nerve endings that provide us with all the physical pleasures that we will ever know as well as the repository of all the emotional responsiveness that we can desire. One of the most compelling things about this book is that Winterson does not fall into an easy dichotomy between these two kinds of passions as is all too often the case."

Tags:jeanette, winterson, novel, written, on, the, body, physical, love, literary, craft, legerdemain, passion, collective, sociologist, emile, durkheim, suicide, social, constrictions, female, anatomy, natalie, angier, women, an, intimate, geography, clitoris, penis, socialization, naomi

Abstract
The writer gives a brief history of female genital mutilation (FGM) including the different types, the reasons behind this occurrence and why it continues today. The paper looks at FGM in Egypt and Kenya and the policies in each of these countries are outlined in detail. The author explains that in Egypt FGM began for religious reasons and despite many challenges to the validity of the Fatwa, or religious decree, continues to this day. According to the paper, the rate is smaller than in previous generations, but it still continues to pose a threat to the lives of young girls in the country. In the case of Kenya, it began as a rite of passage, which largely went unnoticed by the rest of the world until the early 1960s when Kenya wanted independence and suddenly found this practice under scrutiny by the rest of the western world. The paper also discusses the United Nations and World Agency positions on FGM in order to help understand what attempts are being made by the world community to try to stop this practice on the grounds that it is a violation of human rights.

From the Paper
"Data from the Adolescence and Social Change in Egypt survey suggest significant recent change in both the prevalence and practices surrounding female circumcision. After apparently remaining constant and nearly universal for several decades, prevalence among contemporary teenage girls is predicted to be more than 10 percent less than for their mothers. Still, the level of circumcision among Egyptian girls is high. Our data do not allow us to pinpoint the onset of the decline, but they do suggest an increased momentum in the years following 1994. Without further measurement at later time points, we cannot be certain that uncircumcised girls in the ASCE sample will avoid circumcision in the future. However, analysis of girls' own attitudes toward the practice hint that increasing age brings greater independence of thought and diminished support for circumcision (Nawal, 1980)."

Tags:fgm, kenya, egypt, african, clitoris, labia, religion, muslim, resarch, sexuality, scholars, circumcision, islam, health, risks, passage, rite, culture, ethnic, women, organizations, status, social, health, child, family

Abstract
This paper presents a research proposal for examining the problem of female circumcision that still takes place in some countries. The paper looks at the conflict between the argument that female circumcision is a tribal practice that must be carried out and the argument that this is a mutilation of women's bodies that violates their individual rights. The paper also proposes to examine the reasons behind the practice, the true magnitude of the problem and a review of the literature that deals with this issue. The study attempts to shed light on the practice of female circumcision and how prevalent it actually is in many countries, as well as the dangers of it and why the practice should be stopped.

From the Paper
"The practice of female circumcision still goes on in Africa and other areas of the world. It is most prevalent in African countries such as Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen, among others (Djibouti, 2005). There are various reasons why this ritual circumcision takes place, and there are three different types of circumcisions that are performed, depending on the tribal laws and regulations that are accepted in a particular region. It is important here to discuss these types, why this practice still exists, what - if anything - is being done to stop it, and what can be done to change things so that the practice no longer takes place. The main point of conflict for this particular practice is that there is a debate regarding the individual rights of the women versus the tribal identity that they have."

Tags:infilbuation, removal, clitoris, labia, majora, minora, sewing, sides, vulva, opening