Abstract
This paper discusses the highly controversial issue of female genital cutting (also referred to in the literature as female genital mutilation and clitoridectomy) as practiced traditionally in various parts of Africa and the Middle East. It presents both sides of the issue, outlining arguments for and against the practice with special reference to female sexuality and the role of women in the family and society. Drawing upon research done in the West among immigrants who have undergone the procedure, the paper makes the argument that the practice must be understood and evaluated within the context of the social norms and values in which it evolved.

From the Paper
"One of the most unusual forms of "sexual violence" from a Western perspective is the practice of female genital cutting (FGC), also referred to by various other terms, such as "female circumcision," "female genital mutilation," and "clitoridectomy." It takes several forms, but is defined broadly by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia for cultural, religious, and other non-therapeutic reasons" (cited in Esho, Enzlin, Van Wolputte, & Temmerman, 2010, p. 222). It is prevalent in several parts of the world, but most notably in Africa and the Middle East, and procedures and practices vary widely from place to place (Fourcroy, 2006; Leonard, 2000). The procedure is performed on girls between the ages of 4 and 10, but there are areas where it may occur soon after birth or just before marriage, and even as late as after a woman's first pregnancy and delivery (Leonard, 2000). While the practice was confined largely to the African continent for centuries, within the past 25 years or so, it has become an issue of international concern, as immigrants, refugees, and asylum seekers from countries where it is prevalent have flooded into the West and brought with them not only the cultural mores and attitudes that are associated FGC, but also the social, public health, and other problems that it inevitably raises for Western societies (Fourcroy, 2006; Leonard, 2000; Toubia, 1994). This paper will examine the practice of female genital cutting in terms of its relation to female sexuality, family structures, and society at large. Of course, these three areas are not mutually exclusive and invariably have an impact on one another. Thus, certain aspects of the discussion will involve some overlapping of these categories."

Tags:mutilation clitoridectomy infibulation, female circumcision, sexual responsiveness, Female Sexual Function Index

Abstract
This paper explains that incest, which is one of the most taboo topics in today's society and has close ties to child abuse, involves sexual relationships between people who are genetically related to one another. The author points out that, in the Middle East, clitoridectomy, the removal of a woman's clitoris, is often performed on a girl by her own mother in response to the rampant pedophilia of the men and thus is a form of incest prevention. The paper relates that incest is often associated with in-breeding and increased rates of birth defects, but some cultures, such as the Pharaohs of Egypt, the royal family of Hawaii and the Hapsburg dynasty of Austria, encouraged inter-family marriage to strengthen their bloodlines and maintain their purity.

From the Paper
"It has been proposed that the prohibitions against incest developed as a means to prevent the gene pool from deteriorating. This theory is much disputed, with the arguments against it being backed by the nature of the various prohibitions, which, as stated earlier, often allow sexual relations between genetically related individuals. However, this argument against incest has begun to lose its efficacy through the development of effective contraception. Other reasons for the taboo against incest are based around the nature of the family. Preservation of the family unit and promotion of family wealth/power become the focus around which anti-incest prohibitions are developed."

Tags:family, pedophilia, taboo, genetics, royal

Abstract
This paper is a comprehensive research project on the cultural practice of female genital mutilation--its usage, history, current status, legality, implications for social work, and implications for criminal justice. The practice is described, and the effects on the victims are detailed.

From the Paper
"Female genital mutilation sometimes known euphemistically as female circumcision is a cultural practice in which all or part of the female genitalia are removed. Sunna circumcision involves the removal of the prepuce hood and tip of the clitoris. A clitoridectomy is the removal of the entire clitoris and the adjacent labia and infibulation is a clitoridectomy plus the removal of all or part of the labia minora andl abia majora after which the wound is stitched up to leave only a small hole for urine and..."

Tags:female genital mutilation, female circumcision, emotional, physical, disfigurement, clitoridectomy, infibulation, Sunna circumcision, psychological impact, tradition, Tostan Project

Abstract
This is a serious look at the way women are treated in Kenya. The paper goes out to explain the various consequences and types of Female Gentalia Mutilation . It also tries to justify why the practice is still carried out through the eyes of the traditional people. . The author argues that there is a need for strong outreach, education at the grassroots and family life education: that involves the communities and addresses the main reasons to discontinue the practice. This should be done in compromise but not by attacking the practicing few.

From the Paper
"According to the Kenya demographic Health Survey (KDHS), female circumcision is the partial or complete cutting away of a woman's external genitalia. While the practice is thought to be a cultural tradition in Kenya, KDHS says its origin and underlying cultural rational is not clearly understood. It is commonly referred to as female circumcision mostly to imply that it is similar to male circumcision. However, the degree of cutting is more extreme and often impairs a woman's sexual and reproductive functions. It is because of this that the name female genital mutilation is starring."

Tags:circumscision, clitoridectomy, passage, rights, rite, womanhood, women

Abstract
This paper briefly describes traditional feminist methodologies for analyzing cultural practices that are unfamiliar or challenging. It highlights the shortcomings of the methodologies and discusses potentially more appropriate methodology. The writer considers how the task of finding more appropriate methodologies is made more difficult for her by the fact that it frequently challenges her own culturally normative ideas about gender relations.

From the Paper
"For many years Western feminists have positioned themselves within their own Western culture, assuming that they occupy higher ground, in the sense that the Western culture is liberal, individualist, and a lot less sexist than non-Western cultures. From this point of view, Western feminists have felt free to pity their non-Western sisters, and also to attempt to "save" them - for example, Abu-Lughod (2002) takes issue with the fact that Americans have taken it upon themselves to "save" women in Afghanistan from the Taliban and the burqa. Volp (date) sums it up, stating that Western women theorizing about non-Western women living within Western nations have erred because of their "conflation of racialised immigrant communities and regressive sex-subordinating culture in a variety of contexts, including female genital surgeries and so-called "cultural defenses" (p. 109). It has become clear that this way of analyzing other cultures has serious shortcomings. For one thing, as Narayan (1997) points out, it distorts analyses. When information is gathered about women in other countries, this information crosses borders, and loses much in the crossing. The information becomes distorted. Another problem is that culture is blamed for the problems of non-Western women, in a way that is never done for Western women, with the result that Third World women are deemed to have suffered "death by culture" (Narayan, 1997, p. 84). For example, a woman in the West who is shot or strangled by her husband is deemed a victim of domestic violence, but a woman in India who is burnt to death by her husband is deemed a victim of culture, because this method of murder is seen as exotic, and therefore culture-specific. One of the problems with this mode of analysis, as Narayan (1997) points out, is that the Western feminist is unable to even see the connection between domestic violence and dowry-murders - the connection is invisible to her. Moreover, many American feminists are unaware that at least 1,400 American women are killed by their domestic partners annually - but extremely aware of dowry-murder. However, what is the real difference, apart from a difference in choice of murder weapon? Guns are the weapon of choice in the USA because they are ubiquitous, while fire is the weapon of choice in India, because fires are ubiquitous there."

Tags:clitoridectomy, burqua, culture