Abstract This paper tackles the controversial practice of male and female circumcision inherent in various cultures. The author details several types of circumcision for both sexes. Conclusions are drawn by the author at the end of the paper in support of the banning of all circumcision.
From the Paper "Ritualistic circumcision has been practiced in various cultures for thousands of years. While the definite origins of the procedure are not known, the earliest records of circumcision date as far back as 4000 B.C. in ancient Egypt. Forms of circumcision are performed throughout the world through different methods and for different reasons. Males and females receive forced mutilation of some or all of their genital areas and often do not receive an explanation for the practice. Circumcisions are almost always performed without any form of anesthesia and are very painful. As with many cultural traditions, the practicing population assumes that the operation is customary worldwide and in most groups."
Abstract This paper examines the advantages and disadvantages of infant circumcision. First, the paper reviews the research supporting neonatal circumcision and the reasons for parents' decisions to circumcise their child. Secondly, the paper looks at the disadvantages of circumcision and possible reasons for parents to decide against having their child circumcised. Lastly the paper presents the author's personal viewpoint on this very controversial practice of neonatal circumcision.
Table of Contents:
The Pros of Circumcision Cons of Circumcision Author's Opinion of Infant Circumcision
From the Paper "Consistent introduction of bacteria results in contamination of urine in uncircumcised boys, which can sometimes necessitate the use of more invasive procedures, such as catheterization, to attain a valid urine specimen from boys who are uncircumcised. Sometimes on an uncircumcised penis the foreskin may be difficult or impossible to retract (phimosis) which can lead to inflammation of the head of the penis, which can create difficulties urinating and in adulthood can make sex very uncomfortable."
Abstract This paper studies John Calvin's work "Institutes of the Christian Religion," in which he addresses the issues of infant baptism and circumcision within the Christian faiths. The paper shows that Calvin believed that infant baptism is a divine institution, which infants can not be deprived of without violating the will of God. The paper also demonstrates how Calvin paralleled the practice of baptism for the Christians with circumcision for the Jews, as based on the Scripture. The paper begins with an explanation of the baptismal rituals and their historical and religious development. Next, the paper explores the ritual of circumcision within the Bible and discusses its connection to infant baptism. The paper then presents the views of religious authorities who oppose infant baptism, before concluding with a detailed summary of Calvin's views in favor of it.
Outline
Introduction
Definition of Baptism
Infant Baptism -Historical Perspective
The Meaning of Circumcision Circumcision and Infant Baptism
Those Opposing Baptism
Calvin's Defense of the practice of Infant Baptism and Circumcision Conclusion
From the Paper "Calvin instantly attempts to show the continuity between baptism and circumcision (3). He argues that the regeneration of the Abrahamic covenant and institution of circumcision connected in Genesis included "the promise of eternal life." He says Christ Himself implies this in Mathew , and Paul testify it almost explicitly Calvin points out that the proof that circumcision is an external rite equivalent to an internal regenerative work of divine grace is the statements in Dt. 10:16 and 30:6 that God circumcises the hearts; in other words, external circumcision is a counterpart to the preceding internal circumcision. Circumcision indicates the purging from sin, the setting aside of the sinful flesh, and a public testimony of obedience, the very things baptism is said to specify. In sum, both circumcision and baptism signify the preceding work of regeneration (4). The disparity between the two ceremonies, asserts Calvin, is not in the internal work both indicate, but just in the external aspect of the rite."
Abstract In this paper, the author explores the topic of male circumcision in America and sheds light on the reasons that it is a firm social norm in American society. The author raises the question as to just how and why circumcision came to be so prevalent in American society. To answer these questions the author first explores the historical and religious aspects of circumcision, then the contemporary medical research and debates and concludes with the psychological and sociological aspects of this procedure. He talks in depth about each aspect and concludes that with modern research being arguable either way, circumcision should cease being the silent American tradition and should be brought out of the closet where young parents can have open, reasonable discussions with their doctors. He believes that the American taboo of remaining silent about circumcision should be reversed; after all, he states, it is just foreskin.
From the Paper "One of the main similarities in these religious practices, and those of present day, is that circumcision almost always seems to take place at birth. It seems rational that modern day techniques simply carried on the Jewish tradition of male circumcision at birth. It seems to have always been hypothesized that infants do not experience pain in the first few days of life, therefore making it seem more reasonable to perform such a painful procedure at birth, rather than later in life. As the centuries progressed, there always seemed to be a medical rational presupposed by society for the Jewish tradition of circumcision. "It is important to note, however, that it was often historians and philosophers who made medical claims for Jewish circumcision rather than Jewish religious leaders."
Abstract The paper provides a short history of male circumcision and its present day status in the world. It then provides a thorough examination of the arguments for and against circumcision. The paper shows that arguments for circumcision are the health benefits such as the reduction of HIV and penile cancer. Those against male circumcision claim that it is traumatic for the baby and that there is no evidence of health benefits.
From the Paper "Even though genital mutilation of females under the age of 18 is now a felony crime in the United States, after over 20 years of debate, boys however, are apparently not entitled to equal protection. ?This entire legal interpretation, aside from being in conflict with common sense, as well as British and American common law, is also in conflict with existing international law.? In the United Nations, the National Organization of Circumcision Information Resource Centers has acknowledged that male infant circumcision is, in fact, a form of child abuse. NOCIRC also presents information that male infant circumcision is clearly in violation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, as well as the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights."
Abstract This paper examines the available medical research regarding circumcision in new born male infants. Until recently, parents of newborn males were often faced with a decision concerning their baby that medical experts often promised would have far-reaching consequences. They were told that circumcising their baby would prevent horrible medical maladies, including infections and sexually transmitted diseases. This paper details the advances in medical research which proves that these claims are untrue. The Academy of Pediatrics has actively taken a firm stand against routine circumcision for boys. This paper explores the cultural and religious demands that coerce many parents to continue choosing this particular surgical procedure for their infant sons. This paper also touches on the issue of female circumcision and genital mutilation as well as the related complications.
From the Paper "Ultimately, based on the medical complications and related consequences of both routine infant circumcision of boys and female genital mutilation of girls, one might wonder why either continues to exist. However, closer looks at both practices indicate that they are similar. Indeed, in the societies where the respective practices exist, problems arising from each are likely to be seen as a normal part of life and may not even be associated with circumcision. The most important reasons, however, probably lie in the social and economic conditions of the lives of those who are subjected to the practices. Still, in considering the complications, sexual hardships and increase of sexually transmitted diseases surrounding both procedures, it is easy to see that both practices are incredibly similar and must be stopped on all humans worldwide immediately."
Abstract This paper presents a research proposal for examining the problem of female circumcision that still takes place in some countries. The paper looks at the conflict between the argument that female circumcision is a tribal practice that must be carried out and the argument that this is a mutilation of women's bodies that violates their individual rights. The paper also proposes to examine the reasons behind the practice, the true magnitude of the problem and a review of the literature that deals with this issue. The study attempts to shed light on the practice of female circumcision and how prevalent it actually is in many countries, as well as the dangers of it and why the practice should be stopped.
From the Paper "The practice of female circumcision still goes on in Africa and other areas of the world. It is most prevalent in African countries such as Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen, among others (Djibouti, 2005). There are various reasons why this ritual circumcision takes place, and there are three different types of circumcisions that are performed, depending on the tribal laws and regulations that are accepted in a particular region. It is important here to discuss these types, why this practice still exists, what - if anything - is being done to stop it, and what can be done to change things so that the practice no longer takes place. The main point of conflict for this particular practice is that there is a debate regarding the individual rights of the women versus the tribal identity that they have."
A discussion of the ritual of circumcision in the Aborigine Aranda tribe of Australia and how this practice relates to the aspect of magic and religion.
Abstract This paper provides a brief history of the Aranda tribe (also called the Arrernte), a group of Aborigines who lived in Central Australia, their rituals and customs . In particular, it examines the rite of circumcision when a boy reached the age of ten to twelve. The ritual takes many months to complete and begins with the men of the camp tossing the boy in the air repeatedly, somewhat like we toss a child in a blanket signifying the boy's long journey into manhood. It also looks at the practice of "totemism," which blends nature with their religious beliefs and how the totem (tjurunga) for the circumcision ceremony was one of their most significant totems.
From the Paper "The Aranda tribe (also called the Arrernte) is a group of Aborigines who lived in Central Australia. They were the source of the "Dream Time" legends, and lived in a society filled with complex religious and spiritual events. Several anthropologists and scientists studied the tribe around the turn of the 20th century, and documented their rituals and rites. They were hunter-gathers, who did not know how to raise crops until the white man came to Australia. They had complex religious beliefs, which were illustrated by their many rituals and rites, including the many layered rites young men must go though to enter manhood."
Abstract Circumcision has been a central feature of Jewish culture for more than 3,500 years, symbolic of the newborn male's entry into Jewish tradition. The paper looks at personal and cultural aspects of circumcision, including an interview with a member of this minority culture and analyzes aspects of the ritual in terms of value orientation within the larger culture, including its health care delivery system.
From the Paper "Jay moved to Los Angeles to go to college, and he has visited his family only twice in the four years he has been at school. The second time was to attend the bris or brit milah, "the covenant of circumcision," for his nephew. When planning the visit, he admits he was slightly annoyed to have to take the time to go home, but he found the experience very moving and started to think about his faith more intensely than he has in awhile. Most of the time, Jay thinks of himself as part of the dominant culture, "but experiences like this remind me that my heritage is a little different," he says. "Even if I don't keep kosher or observe all the practices, I am still a Jew. It's part of who I am, and I should at least think about that more often.""
Abstract This report looks at existing literature portrayals of female circumcision in Africa. The findings of this report concern the ethical, moral, and medical rationalizing that prompt a bias in the existing literature against the practice of female circumcision from a number of different perspectives.
From the Paper "When discussing the subject of female circumcision in Africa, one must also be familiar with concepts and theories regarding culture. From one point of view, often called the cultural relativism point of view, cultures are viewed as being understood by their participants, and not necessarily by those outside of the specific cultural milieu, in this case
of traditional African societies. This point of view does not presuppose universal ethics from a perspective of influence on or interaction with the culture from policy directives. These policy directives can be seen in the case of female circumcision in Africa as the intervention of organizations, often worldwide organizations, which seek to delimit the cultural process of female circumcision from a predominantly western
cultural view, which finds the process abhorrent from an ethical and rights-based perspective. The effectiveness of this cultural imposition, however, is limited to the cultural relativist."
Abstract This paper explores the practices of circumcision within both the Muslim and the Jewish communities, with an emphasis on the laws, rituals, and customs that are found within either community in respect to the motive forces through which circumcision is rationalized.
From the Paper "Ritualistic mutilation of the body is a commonplace practice within cultures, as it creates a visible bond with the community that cannot be easily hidden. Examples of such practices are numerous and highly distinctive, including commonly-known practices such as tattooing and piercing as well as those that are lesser-known, such as the binding of the feet of upper-class women in China or the extension of necks through the use of linked metal hoops within the Sudan. Circumcision is a practice that has both socio-cultural and religious ties within the Jewish and the Muslim communities."
Abstract This paper proposes to study the reasons behind the practice of female circumcision and the true magnitude of the problem. It also provides a review of the literature that deals with this issue. The paper explains that a study will then be conducted by the researcher in the African country of Kenya that will provide information relevant to the topic and what can be done to stop this practice from continuing to take place.
From the Paper "The practice of female circumcision still goes on in Africa and other areas of the world. It is most prevalent in African countries such as Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, and Yemen, among others (Djibouti, 2005). There are various reasons why this ritual circumcision takes place, and there are three different types of circumcisions that are performed, depending on the tribal laws and regulations that are accepted in a particular region. It is important here to discuss these types, why this practice still exists, what - if anything - is being done to stop it, and what can be done to change things so that the practice no longer takes place. The main point of conflict for this particular practice is that there is a debate regarding the individual rights of the women versus the tribal identity that they have."
Abstract This paper puts forward the argument that female genital mutilation is no more a human rights violation than male circumcision, and therefore, both should be abolished. It discusses how, although genital mutilations are usually referred to as a cultural practice, there is increasing evidence that this innocent and benign label actually evades, dismisses, and covers up the horrific effects these mutilations have upon a child's psyche and soma and, moreover, present a very real danger to the child's health. It shows how people or cultures that engage in such practices view them as an essential right of passage and, often, an important requirement for a marriage partner, while those who do not practice genital circumcision view the practice with disbelief, horrified that any human would willingly permit such a thing to be performed on his or her child. It also looks at the origins of some these religious practices.
From the Paper "According to James DeMeo in his article ?The Geography of Genital Mutilations,? the time frame and location of origins of female genital mutilations are most likely identical to that of male genital mutilations, ?given their similar distributions, similar cross-cultural aspects, and similar psychological motifs,? the use of each of which being ?mandated and widely expanded by groups where dominance of the sexual live of children by adults, and females by males, was most extreme.? With the decline of the harem system during the last 100 years, the use of eunuchs has died out, however, female infibulations and other forms female genital mutilations remain part of the certain cultures ?in accordance with the arranged marriage system and other vestiges of a powerful and hysterical virginity taboo.? "
Abstract This paper examines how female genital mutilation, or female circumcision, is a cultural practice, not a religious practice and how in many cultures, female genital mutilation serves as an initiation rite. It looks at the different kinds of circumcisions in different cultures and contends that no ethical defense can be made for preserving a cultural practice that damages women's health and interferes with their sexuality.
From the Paper "Infibulation, also known as pharaonic circumcision, is the most severe form of female genital mutilation. It consists of a clitoridectomy and the excision of the labia minora as well as the inner layers of the labia majora. The raw edges are then sewn together with catguts or made to adhere to each other by means of thorns. The suturing together is done so that the remaining skin of the labia majora will heal together and form a bridge of scar tissue over the vaginal opening. A small piece of wood or straw is inserted into the vagina to prevent a complete occlusion, and to leave a passage for urine and menstrual flow (Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). "
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that within the varying interpretations of Islam there are many different views on the institution of marriage. The writer specifically looks at the number of wives one is allowed or sanctified to have, the wearing of the veil by women and lastly female circumcision. The writer notes that these varied interpretations have led to varied applications and laws that dictate the diversity of the very mildest forms of the application of these ideas to the most extreme applications.
Outline:
Introduction: Differing interpretations of Islam
Introduction: Marriage
Polygamy
Interpretation 1
Interpretation 2
The Veil
Interpretation 1
Interpretation 2
Female Circumcision Interpretation 1
Interpretation 2
Conclusion
From the Paper "The variations of the veil, worn by women in Islam are many. There is in fact no better direct visual representation of the varying interpretations of the Quran, than the variations of the veil, especially with regard to a limited western view. In more progressive Islamic communities the veil is nothing but a light scarf worn by women to cover their hair and their shoulders. While in its most conservative form, the Burka or hijab, the entire person becomes swallowed by a large heavy garment that covers them from the top of their head to the tips of their toes, and allows vision only through an elaborate lace screened slit over the eyes. The Quranic interpretations abound differing cultural identities, and as has been seen in some fundamental reaffirmations, such as by the Taliban in Afghanistan the affirmation of the fundamentalist can often be a very visible enforcement of more restrictive codes toward women. Prior to the time of the Taliban Afghanistan had been a rather progressive Islamic nation, where women were educated and employed and changes were extreme, for both men and women. A lesson to be learned from this involves the acknowledgement that a form of protection, in the Quran was interpreted in many extreme ways to create a situation of forced social order and conservatism, and the situation was stark in many ways, not just in its treatment of women."
