Abstract
A study of Crytography, the science of mesage encryption. It discusses the history of cryptography and its development during World War II. It discusses the Enigma machine and carefully details its instructions for use. It also discusses cracking the Enigma and includes examples of this in history. This paper analyzes the Enigma and concludes that all codes will eventually be cracked by dedicated and bright Cryptanalysts no matter how complex the algorithm. Also, security is more than just having a brilliant machine. It was not the Enigma that failed in World War II, it was human error.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Background and Early Cipher Technology
The Enigma Machine
Receiving Instructions
Cracking the Enigma
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Cryptography can thought of as the science of message encryption. The battle between Cryptographers (code makers) and Cryptanalysts (code breakers) has been waged since 3000 BC as each tries to outwit the other. Cryptography is essential in performing secure transactions, governing countries and commanding armies. The threat of messages being decrypted has been the motivation for cryptographers to develop new, more complex algorithms in hopes of temporarily staying one step ahead of the Cryptanalysts. Likewise, the motivation for breaking codes can be the difference between winning a war and losing it. As a result, the coder breakers and their computers rose to prominence during their battle in World War II versus the Enigma cipher machine."

Tags:cipher, computer, decryption, encryption, enigma, Germany, history, rejewski, turing, wwii

Abstract
This paper describes the background and history of the German Enigma cipher machine from World War II. It discusses some of the machine's operation principles and its aims. It then discusses how the Polish, French and British were able to break the codes the machine created and eventually use the machine's short-comings against it.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Background and History
Deciphering the Enigma
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Because they were unaware of the extent of the British code breaking system, German officials made another fatal error in judgment that could have resulted in a much different outcome at the end of World War II. This is the use of the D reflector, of which the key was changed every ten days. This could have created a problem for code breakers, as the time factor would have made deciphered keys useless. Fortunately for the Allies, and unfortunately for the Germans, the D reflector proved too cumbersome to implement for all messages. Instead the B reflector was used by default, making the code breaker's task much easier."

Tags:reflector, code, messages

Abstract
Discusses differences between a code and a cipher. Requirements of each; how each works. History of encryption. Enigma machine of World War II. Pre-computer encrption. Development of computer program to encrypt data. Function of a "hash" (a number generated from text & smaller than the text itself). Privacy issues. Future of algorithms.

From the Paper
"Encryption and Hash Algorithms
Introduction
Stephen Levy (2001), reporting on the latest "unbreakable code" begins his report by quoting Edgar Allan Poe. "It may roundly be asserted that human ingenuity cannot concoct a cipher which human ingenuity cannot resolve" (Levy, 2001, 45). This article was selected to lead off this discussion of encryption because of two elements of confusion.
First, the headline read "An Unbreakable Code?" and the article was about enciphering and deciphering, also called "encryption" and ?decryption.? This is a common, and often-repeated mistake, one which can confuse the very field of study. A "code" is not a "cipher" anymore than a "tennis ball" is a ?cabbage.?


A code is a..."

Abstract
The rapid advancement of technology, particularly in the telecommunication and computer sector, has brought a paradigm shift to our communication methodology. The Internet has revolutionized the world of communication, and today we are living in a global village without any geographical limitations. This paper shows that the change in business methodology indicated by the unprecedented growth of e-commerce is not without its problems. The loopholes in the new technology provide a fertile ground for miscreant elements. Hackers are on the increase, and the Net seems not all that safe and confidential. This paper discusses cryptography, which is the science of data encryption, a technology that provides for a safe, secure, and private information exchange. Cryptography has evolved from its primitive form, and today it is studied as a separate subject. Encryption has become an integral part of our security provisions, and it provides for safe transmissions through a path infested with hackers and snoopers and other kinds of offenders who use their technical expertise to intrude into and threaten the privacy and confidentiality of our vital data. The paper discusses the application of cryptography, with a brief overview of the basic mathematics and the different algorithms.

Paper Outline
Thesis
Introduction
Basic Encryption Methods
Transposition
Key Based Encryption
Symmetric Key Encryption
Public Key Encryption
Socket Security Layer
Encryption Standard
Crypto Algorithms
Stream Ciphers
Frequency Analysis
Block Ciphers
Electronic Code Book Mode
Cipher Block Chaining
Cipher Feedback
Output Feedback (OFB Mode)
Key length and Security
Basic Mathematics of Cryptography
Arriving at the Decryptor
Random Numbers and Key Security
The Need for Encryption
Attacks on Medical Records
Attacks on the Pentagon
Future of Encryption Technology
Quantum Cryptography
Conclusion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"Block ciphers operate on a block of plain text and encrypt them with a key of a particular length to yield a block of cipher text. For this purpose the given string is divided into blocks and encryption algorithm is applied to the individual blocks. The DES is currently one of the best-known block ciphers and also the standard followed by the American government for the past twenty years. Obviously problems arise when we try to use the same crypto key for identical blocks of plain text. This reveals clear pattern in the transmitted cryptogram making it easy for the hacker to decrypt the message. The essential property of a successful algorithm is the need to produce cryptograms without any obvious patterns that can be related to the individual blocks of the plain text."

Tags:masking, veiling, SSL, protocol, CBC

Abstract
This five-page paper is on "Using cryptography to secure data". It includes the description, the advantages, disadvantages and the examples of symmetric cryptography, asymmetric cryptography, block cipher and stream cipher.

Abstract
This paper examines how quantum cryptography is a fast growing form of encryption that is not based upon the difficulty of mathematical algorithms and instead employs quantum physics to encrypt information on the physical level. It emphasizes the need for an innovative cipher as well as the need to inform the IT community regarding the commercial application of quantum cryptography. It also provides a broad overview of the quantum cryptographic protocol and operation using fiber optic media.

From the Paper
"The integrity of information between sender and receiver relies upon secure channels and more importantly the ability to protect the information from unauthorized recipients. The transmission of information can be compromised when a third party listens in on the transmission media measuring the physical object. Consequently, the eavesdropper can effectively intercept the contents of a communication. Certain types of classical cryptography have proven vulnerable to the interception of data and the incident can remain undetected during the entire transmission. This idea of a man-in-the-middle attack on communication media using quantum cryptography is not possible due to the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum superposition's and quantum entanglement are two properties of quantum physics used to detect eavesdropping. "

Tags:fiber, optic, media, physics, computer

Abstract
This paper explains that the ancient "art" of keeping a secret, cryptography, has joined the age of technology, computerization, and intergalactic communication. The author points out that the government agencies entrusted with maintaining security in the United States have not followed a strictly open path in limiting public access to cryptographic methods. The paper relates that, with the Financial Anti-Terrorism Act, passed in October of 2001, restrictions on surveillance have been reduced, while penalties for low-level computer intrusion are greatly increased.

From the Paper
"In the late 1970s, American cryptographers were busy working within the quickly evolving world of the Internet. "This academic revolution--the development of a public science of cryptography and a resulting colloquy about it--was accompanied by a similar, equally dramatic revolution on the microcomputer front. The result: Ordinary people with desk top PCs could encrypt their messages or data to a degree that only governments could have achieved not long before" (Godwin 45). Maintaining secrets had come to be seen as "collecting intelligence" a service provided by a number of government agencies in the United States. Military "intelligence" has also always had the extra burden of maintaining secrets in order to save lives. Probably every nation on earth gathers information concerning the political and military status of other nations."

Tags:ancient, military, security, messages, access

Abstract
This paper describes the pre-World War II Japanese code machine known as Purple, and how US cryptanalysts broke it. Additionally, the paper discusses the distinction between codes and ciphers, further examining the technology of the Purple machine and the means of breaking its code. The paper concludes with an analysis of the US failure to prevent Pearl Harbor along with later successful use of decoded Japanese secret information.

From the Paper
"Prior to its entry into the Second World War the United States had no overall national intelligence-gathering and interpretation agencie. The Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the ancestor of the CIA, was only established after the US entered the war. Both the exigencies of war and the shock of the surprise attack at Pearl Harbor led to a dramatic expansion and coordination of intelligence gathering which was then institutionalized in peacetime by the National Security Act ..."

Tags:codes, OSS, Japan, crytananalysts, Pearl Harbor, ciphers, japan, intelligence (military/diplomatic), world war II, pearl harbor

Abstract
Transnational corporations - companies which operate in two or more nations - have emerged onto the global scene as business conglomerates that affect the lives of people on six different continents. This paper analyzes the affects that transnational Corporations have on developing countries, examines how they can stimulate economic activity and the detrimental, darker role TNC's can play in harming the environment and taking advantage of the less stringent standards in developing countries. The paper uses Cypher and Dietz's "The Process of Economic Development", Chapter 14: TNC's (1998), as well as Andre Frank's "The Development of Underdevelopment" (1969).

From the Paper
"Cypher and Dietz term DFI or Direct Foreign Investment as the ownership of productive assets by a corporation in another nation. They continue by pointing out that existing plant and equipment is quite often the target of TNC investment for purchase, reducing the ownership and control of domestic capitalists (C & D 1998, PGs. 436-438). When TNC's purchase existing plants and equipment in developing countries, they are not aiding the local economy or stimulating investment, but rather are carving their own niche into the developing country that substitutes local ownership and control. Based upon statistical analysis of total investment in developing countries, DFI accounts for a small slice and thus has a rather modest impact on the growth of lesser-developed countries. Cypher and Dietz point out that the impact the TNC positively has on undeveloped countries is more qualitative in nature than quantitative (C & D 1998, Pg. 438)."

Tags:TNC, Direct, Foreign, Investment, DFI, imperialism

Abstract
This paper discusses the different approaches to the development of Third World countries. Through a review of the writing of Hodder's "Development Geography" (2000), and Cypher and Dietz's "The Process of Economic Development" (1998), this paper delves into the goals of development and its corresponding impediments. Indicators of development are also used to compare and contrast development around the globe.

From the Paper
"One thing is certain among the discussion on development and geography: Development is not a rapid process. Many obstacles exist on the course to development, and many impediments are hard to predict and plan for accordingly. However, despite these difficulties economic development is a goal for the world. To begin however, one must define development. According to Hodder, development is, "The process by which traditional society employing traditional, unsophisticated techniques is transformed into a modern, high-technology, high-income economy in which capital, labour skills and scientific knowledge replace labour-intensive methods of production (Hodder 2000, 4.)" This is quite a mouthful, however Hodder defines development as a process, and anything that is a process must have established goals for that process to meet. Let's identify and examine some of the goals of the development process."

Tags:William, Rostow, The, International, Monetary, Fund, World, Bank