Abstract
This paper highlights difficulties with using sequence data to estimate parameters about human ancestral populations, particularly times of specification (when new species evolved). The Y chromosome has been analyzed to infer various parameters about human ancestral populations and to provide clues as to human origins. The paper argues that the individual properties of this data source combined with a burgeoning list of refutable assumptions make any and all of these results utterly spurious. The paper argues that molecular experts claim that the old and imprecise science of paleontology has been superseded by their far more mathematically precise methods. These experts sideline the fact that all their estimates are fundamentally based on paleontologically acquired data. The paper includes illustrations and table.

From the Paper
"The Y-linked SRY gene triggers mammalian male-determining processes when expressed in the embryonic bipotential gonad. Sex chromosomes are thought to have evolved ~300Mya, probably replacing a mechanism based on gestational ambient temperature. Current opinion is that the Y-chromosomal SRY gene and its X-chromosome homologue (SOX3) are variants diverged from an ancestral non-sex-determining gene. When the ancient SRY-precursor gene gained a dominant and penetrant male-determining function the homologues became sex chromosomes and the process of dramatic degeneration and specialization of the Y began. Pseudoautosomal regions (PARs) located at the tips of X and Y recombine at high frequency during male meiosis. Consequently, these regions are similar to autosomal sequences in base composition and gene diversity. PARs comprise 5% of the Y and the other 95% makes up the non-recombining region of the Y (NRY). Recombination deficiency of the NRY is thought to result from lack of homology with the X, due to several large inversions. Null mutations accumulate in NRY genes as they are "sheltered" by X-chromosome homologues."

Tags:biology, genetics, mitochondria, mtdna, nry, sry

Abstract
This research paper discusses the current and anticipated uses of Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes in forensics and population studies. It analyzes the literature regarding the subject and discusses the results and conclusions reached. The paper concludes that the individuality of the male-specific part of the Y chromosome can be optimally explored by the Y-STR haplotype analysis. The paper contains graphs and tables.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Scope of Study
Rationale of Study
Overview of Study
Definition of Key Terms
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
Chapter 3: Methodology
Description of the Study Approach
Data-gathering Method and Database of Study
Chapter 4: Data Analysis
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

From the Paper
"The research showed that the ability to identify male-specific DNA renders polymorphic Y-chromosomal sequences an invaluable addition to the standard panel of autosomal loci used in forensic genetics. Y-STR haplotyping is particularly important for sensitive typing of male DNA in mixed stains as well as for rapid assortment of biological crime scene evidence. Moreover, Y chromosomal profiling can trace back paternal lineages into the past and has thus been proven a useful tool in genealogical and kinship testing. The research also showed that the individuality of the male-specific part of the Y chromosome can be optimally explored by the Y-STR haplotype analysis using a set of highly variable short tandem repeat markers approved by the forensic and scientific community."

Tags:culpability, genes, DNA, loci

Abstract
Scientific discussion of genetic material of Y Chromosone. Research on human genetics. Concept of sexual selection. Male & female traits. Genes on the Y Chromosone. & their crucial role. Implications of mechanisims of chromosomal sex determination.

From the Paper
"Review of Functional Coherence of the Human Y Chromosome


Introduction
In the current rush to map the human genome it is sometimes easy to assume that the modern science of genetics understands all there is to know concerning the functions of the human Y chromosome. This is far from reality. Because there has been such tremendous effort for an extended period of time on molecular biology, i.e.; research into AIDS, cancer, and auto immune diseases, certain aspects of human genetics have been under.explored. This no longer is the case. The article by Lahn and Page make some salient points:
the wasteland model of Y chromosome content was based largely on anectodotal evidence (Lahn and Page, 1997, p 676)..."

Abstract
This paper defines the Turner Syndrome as the absence or deformity of the X chromosome. It investigates the treatments available to individuals suffering from the syndrome. The paper explores the resources and support groups available for parents of children who are diagnosed with the disorder.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Identification
Characteristics
Treatment
Resources and Support for Parents
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"It is estimated that Turner Syndrome occurs in 1 out of every 2500 live female births, making it one of the most common chromosomal disorders in the world. In the United States alone 800 new cases are discovered every year and an estimated 80,000 women battle with the disorder. ("Resources and Research: FAQ's," n.d.) The central purpose of this discussion is to identify and characterize the aforementioned condition using information gathered from the Turner Syndrome Society and The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. We will also investigate the treatments that are offered to individuals that suffer with the disorder including growth hormones and reproductive technologies. Finally, we will explore what resources and support groups are available for parents of children that are diagnosed with Turner Syndrome."

Tags:female, chromosome, treatment, support, group, birth, defect, infant

Abstract
This study examines the importance of chromosomal location in the expression of the sporulation gene spoIIQ in Bacillus subtilis. It hypothesizes that if spoIIQ were placed in different locations of the chromosome, it would enter at different times, causing it to enter the prespore after sF activity and negating spoIIQ expression. Twelve strains of B. subtilis were transformed by an integrative plasmid so that each strain contained a lacZ gene fused to the promoter of spoIIQ, at different locations in the chromosome. This fusion was utilized to determine spoIIQ activity during sporulation conditions through simple enzyme assay. The results in the paper show differences in the levels of expression for spoIIQ-lacZ present at the various locations, suggesting that the surrounding regions are having an effect on expression. The paper concludes that these results require continued research on the determination of factors affecting spoIIQ expression.

From the Paper
"The entire process of sporulation along with other functions of the bacterium is regulated using sigma factors. These sigma factors are transcription factors that bind with RNA polymerase (E) to specify which genes will be expressed based on the promoter of the gene (Stratgier 1996). Interestingly, one such sigma factor, sF, is the only sigma factor active in 1) the prespore and 2) the early stages of sporulation. As sporulation commences, a copy of the single circular bacterial chromosome is moved from the mother cell and into the developing prespore with origin entering first and the terminus last (Piggot 2000)."

Tags:galactosidase, onpg, spoiir, transcription

Abstract
This paper discusses how the XYY syndrome has been blamed for many abnormalities in human males for well over one hundred years and how recent evidence points to the fact that this syndrome does not
manifest aggressive or violent behavior in affected human males, at least not to the extent of criminality or sociopathological behavior, such as one would find in sociopaths or "serial killers." It concludes that since genetic research on this abnormality is rather scant, we must rely on what is available, based on hard scientific evidence and documentation and that under extraordinary circumstances, this type of genetic disorder may indeed cause some type of aggressive behavior in males, due to the existence of higher levels of testosterone.

From the Paper
"This 47, XYY Syndrome is rather common as compared to other genetic abnormalities associated with human chromosomes and how they pair up during the development stages of human growth in the womb. Overall, this syndrome occurs in about 1 male out of 1,000, "born with an extra Y chromosome in each cell." In the United States, recent data has revealed that 5 to 10 boys are born each day with the 47, XYY Syndrome which figures to less than one percent ("What is 47, XYY Syndrome?" Internet). These statistics tend to show that the XYY Syndrome is rare, yet when one considers the number of males born in the U.S. every day with other genetic disorders, it could be said that this syndrome is relatively common. "

Tags:human, genetics, testosterone

Abstract
This paper examines the case of Richard Speck, a convicted murderer of eight women in the United State. At Speck's trial his attorney claimed that a new theory of behavioral causality with an identifiable chromosomal abnormality represented by the XYY configuration corresponded to specific behavioral traits that predisposed individuals to violent and antisocial behavior. The author of the paper examines evidence for and against this theory in the light of Speck's childhood, research and an autopsy performed on Speck's body after he died in 1991.

Outline:
Background and History
XYY Supermale Analysis
Social Biology Analysis
References

From the Paper
"Critics of the XYY theory of criminal conduct suggest that even if XYY corresponds to higher statistical likelihood of certain types of antisocial behavior, it is not substantially different from other components of naturally evolved human behaviors. In other primate species, including those most closely related to homo sapiens, male dominance is expressed through patterns of behavior that would be considered, in human terms, criminal. According to that view, even XYY-based behavioral patterns still lie within the spectrum of normal human tendencies and that it is not particularly surprising that prisons house individuals who share behavioral traits consistent with criminal behavior (The Hastings Center 1980)."

Tags:behavioral, antisocial, violence, alcoholic, rape, murder, crime, genetics, personality, physiological, abnormality, environmental, chromosomal, criminality

Abstract
This paper looks at Down Syndrome. Named after English physician, John Langdon Down, this is a congenital condition characterized by varying degrees of mental retardation and multiple defects. It is the most common chromosomal abnormality of a generalized syndrome and is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21. It looks at how doctors, scientists, and researchers continue to explore the causes, effects, and treatment of Down Syndrome, and how, with the technological advances in the field of modern genetics, researchers are beginning to isolate individual genes in order to study their specific functions.

Outline
Introduction
Causes of Down Syndrome
Genetic Mechanisms for Down Syndrome
The Symptoms of Down Syndrome
Case Study
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In order to fully understand the medical causes of Down Syndrome, a clear knowledge on the genetic basis of the disorder is required. During the fertilization stage, sperm and eggs cells are created through different processes called meiosis in which each pair of chromosomes splits or disjoins from each other which causes each daughter cell to receive only one chromosome from the original pair. Before they are fully developed, reproductive cells start out with 46 chromosomes, but as they mature, meiosis reduces their chromosome count to twenty-three. Thus, at conception, the sperm and egg each contain 23 chromosomes, being half the usual number; however, errors in chromosomal division during meiosis are very common."

Tags:chromosome, meiosis, genetics, mental, retardation

Abstract
This paper tries to explore the existence of "gay gene". Among several evidences, Hamer et al studies suggest that some genes at Xq28 region of X chromosome may influence the sexual behavior. The result of the study was wrongly presented by the media, which ultimately led to the development of a misconception among people at large, that homosexual behavior was governed by "gay gene". By presenting the facts in a lucid manner the paper tries to break the myth about the existence of "gay gene".

From the Paper
"The study was much publicized by the media2 and a layman, not familiar with scientific terms, soon developed a misconception that a gay inherits his homosexual behavior. In this context, Dr. Jeffery Stainover (2002) says, "It is important to note that serious research on the biology, innateness, or genetic determinants of homosexuality has only just recently begun. Exactly opposite to what the public is being led to believe, the research that has been done so far suggests that genetic factors account for, at most, but a small proportion of the risk." (Chapter "The Biology of Homosexuality: Science or Politics")3. Infact, LeVay stressed that his findings did not prove that homosexuality is genetic."

Tags:chromosome, homosexual, hamer

Abstract
This paper examines Fragile X syndrome, also known as Martin-Bell syndrome, one of the most frequently inherited forms/causes of mental retardation. It looks at how the disorder is derived from a genetically inherited, single-gene mutation and how individuals who have Fragile X syndrome have symptoms that are resultant from a mutated gene on the X chromosome. It provides a short introduction, the genetics behind the disease, the mechanisms of the protein production and lack of therapy, diagnosis and symptoms.

From the Paper
"The cause of Fragile X all boils down to a change in a single gene: an alteration in the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. The mutation inactivates the FMR1 gene, which in turn interferes with the process involved in regulating FMRP protein content. This gene is located on the X chromosome, hence the name Fragile X syndrome. Current research indicates that the FMRP protein assists in cellular communication.3 The sex chromosome alleles for males and females are XY and XX, respectively. This establishes an understanding that Fragile X syndrome, involving the X chromosome, is a sex-linked trait. Since males and females contain either one or two X chromosomes, either can pass on the mutated gene to their offspring."

Tags:chromosome, mental, retardation, martin-bell, protein, x, y