Abstract
This paper looks at the significance of both the male and the female body to the societies of Western Christendom during the Medieval period. It discusses the body through the various stages of youth, manhood and womanhood, old age and finally death. It examines the medieval understanding and view of natural biological processes such as menstruation. The paper examines the medieval view of the 'eastern' man and discusses the views of emissions of the body, such as the body's smell and noise, with particular attention being paid to laughter. It also looks at the way that bodies are dressed and the use of perfume.

From the Paper
"The body was highly significant in the societies of western Christendom during the medieval period and was "central to the process of social classification according to categories of age, health, purity...which were regulated through constructed categories such as stigma and gender". However, whilst ecclesiastical influence was total over all aspects of the body and its behaviour, the enforcement of canonical law must not be overstated, due to the obvious difficulties in policing such infractions of laws on sex and nocturnal habits. The church was also not as morally rigid as has been assumed by many, and in fact during the medieval period in western Christendom, the church deemed that it was preferable to tolerate "behaviour that they disapproved of but that they perceived might meet some wider social need", with such behaviour including prostitution, some kinds of extra marital sex and other casual sexual liaisons."

Tags:classification, gender, ecclesiastical, influence

Abstract
This paper views certain extracts from eye witness accounts of the complexities of the march to and fall of Antioch and Jerusalem and its retainment as the Holy city as the birthplace of Christ and all Christendom in the First Crusade. With an aim of demonstrating the organizational change of the view of the people of the era and correct representation of the facts, two verbose quotations of authoritative figures who were present or involved in the Crusaders are included to aid enlightenment as to the situation from the eyes of observers.

From the Paper
"Pope Urban II dealt with the concept of negating the commandment that "thy shalt not kill" in relation to what will come of those who fell on the battlefield fighting against the hoards of Moslems to retain Jerusalem. In a statement to the realm of Gaul he said: You have modestly expressed a desire to know whether those who have recently died in war, fighting in defence of the church of God and for the preservation of the Christian religion and of the state, or those who may in 'he future fall in the same cause, may obtain indulgence for their sins. We confidently reply that those who, out of love to the Christian religion, shall die in battle fighting bravely against pagans or unbelievers, shall receive eternal life. For the Lord has said through his prophet: "In whatever hour a sinner shall be converted, I will remember his sins no longer." By the intercession of St. Peter, who has the power of binding and loosing in heaven and on the earth, we absolve, as far as is permissible, all such and commend them by our prayers to the Lord."

Tags:antioch, armenian, belief, culture, heathen, humanist, infidel, islam, jerusalem, jew

Abstract
This paper primarily aims to clarify whether Jesus Christ did miracles out of his own divine nature or by the empowering of the Holy Spirit. It begins by describing how the Tri-unity or trinity works (one God, three persons) and discusses what that implies as far as their interrelations go. It specifically discusses whether the Father is superior to the Son and looks at the Gospels for proof.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Tri-unity, Perfect Fellowship Of Three Persons In One Essence.
The Eternal Trinity
The Trinity in the Plan of Redemption
Jesus Christ's Reliance On The Spirit During His Earthly Life.
The Indwelling of the Spirit in Christ
The Conception of Christ
The Baptism of Christ
The Anointing of Christ
The Miracles of Christ
The Death of Christ
The Resurrection of Christ
The Post-Resurrection/ Pre-Ascension ministry of Christ
After the Resurrection
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Jesus Christ, the son of God came to earth with the purpose of redemption. He lived a sinless perfect life on this earth being fully God and fully man for about 33 years. His cooperation with the Holy Spirit is another aspect of the example and lifestyle he left for us to contemplate and practice."
"In Luke 4, Jesus Christ himself talks of his own anointing of the Spirit. While studying this passage, I realized that the ministry of the Holy Spirit in the life of Christ was deeper than what I expected and thus modified slightly the content of this paper. I have come to the conclusion that to understand Christ's reliance on the Holy Spirit, one must first have an enhanced knowledge and understanding of the triune Godhead, their separate persons and works. Needless to say, neither I nor any other finite mind could ever fathom all the things pertaining to the tri-unity (or trinity); nevertheless the things that God has revealed in his word are sufficient to acquire a better picture of the cooperation of the trinity in the work of Christ during the period of his humiliation (and more specifically between Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit ). It will also be very helpful in finding meaning for the believer in the example of our Lord."

Tags:trinity, tri-unity, redemption, monotheism

Abstract
This paper explains that, in Carlo Ginzburg's "The Cheese and the Worms: the Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller", the miller Menocchio, who was charged with heresy in Italy at the age of fifty-two, and then again fifteen years later, is a tale of class conflict and how the tension between the classes in the sixteenth century was influenced by the Protestant Reformation. The author points out that this period was a tumultuous time, both socially and religiously, because of the emergence in Europe of the middle class as illustrated by Menocchio's raise from the peasant tradition to become a moderately wealthy miller. The paper states that the case of Menocchio can be seen as a reaction to an oppressive ruling class, which was unique because of the new influence of literature on lower society and because it was one of the first times that a poor, self-taught individual dared to stand-up to the ecclesiastical order on the basis of logic.

From the Paper
"Still, many people in Menocchio's social position were unable to read or write as well as he could. And certainly, very few people in his time, who were exposed to the writings in his library, reached the same conclusions he rested upon. Yet "this distinctiveness had very definite limits. As with language, culture offers to the individual a horizon of latent possibilities-a flexible and invisible cage in which he can exercise his own conditional liberty." (Ginzburg, xx). This too, is hard to deny-an individual may be considered uncommon within his culture, but it is difficult to separate him from his culture completely. So, although Menocchio held many unusual beliefs, these beliefs cannot be removed from the context they came out of. "

Tags:heresy, protestant-reformation, middle=class, self-taught, printing-press

Abstract
The paper explains that the Templar order was, at one time, a well-respected and useful Order in Christendom, and one event that undoubtedly lowered the significance of the Knights Templar was the fall of the Holy Land. The paper discusses the theories regarding how the suspicion of the Knights Templar actually came to be and how rumors linked the Templars with a circle of lust, sexual sin, and general immorality. The paper further discusses how Philip had the power to use the fall of the Holy Land and the discontent associated with that against the Templars and for his benefit; the Order's assets were large and Philip desired the revenue from their possessions. The paper describes how Philip cruelly weakened these men through torture and succeeded in totally destroying this Order.

From the Paper
"One event that undoubtedly lowered the significance of the Knights Templar was the fall of the Holy Land. The Templars often found themselves at odds with other Christian forces when attempting to secure land and after Holy Land fell, the Templars, as well as other forces, seemed to lose importance because they could not regain the land and Moslem influence was spreading faster then they could quell it. In researching the dissolution of the Knights Templar, Helen Nichols points out the Order was one of the very first military orders and quite possibly the most "far-flung" (Nicholson). But this did not prevent them from being "vulnerable when they failed in their duty" (Nicholson). Part of this failure, in Nicholson's opinion, can be traced to the fall of Acre, for which the Templars are recorded as "chiefly responsible for the defense of the city" (Nicholson). The most widely accepted account of this defeat claims that the Templars were "totally ineffective and only concerned to save their treasure" (Nicholson). This impression could come from the fact that they Templars simply were not as important as they were at one time but they still had businesses and were still active within communities. However, their presence was no doubt becoming less important because of the great loss."

Tags:Holy, Land, Order, Christendom, King, Philip

Abstract
The paper relates that for the first two centuries, chivalry continued to denote proficiency in the art of fighting on horseback and it was only later that this social role of the knights became a specific ideology and a code of honor. The paper then illustrates how the romance of "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" is a symbol of the complex ideology that emerged during the Medieval Ages around the concept of knighthood. The paper also discusses how the crusades organized by Christendom against paganism relied on knights and on their extreme devotion and generosity. The paper therefore concludes that knighthood can be identified as an important part of the Middle Ages, with a complex ideology of its own but also with a determinate role in society.

From the Paper
"Knighthood or chivalry has a very interesting and tumultuous history, which begins in feudalism and continues in the Medieval Age. In England, evidences of chivalry appear only after the Norman Conquest. In the beginning, the term "knighthood" was merely used to indicate the investment of arms of a young man after his training was over. For the first two centuries, chivalry continued to denote proficiency in the art of fighting on horseback. It is only later that this merely social role of the knights was rounded with a specific ideology, which soon become a code of honor. With the spread of Christendom, there appeared different orders of knights, each with their characteristic goals and ideals."

Tags:chivalry, horseback, code, of, honor, Christendom, morality, bravery

Abstract
This paper discusses the historical background of the Spanish Inquisition of the 15th century. It specifically shows how the Inquisition was used to eradicate heresy and safeguard the unanimity of Christendom in Spain. It discusses the role of the Catholic Church and how the Inquisition was finally suppressed by Queen Isabella II 356 years after it was started.

Table of Contents:
Background
Origin and Aims
Conclusion

From the Paper
"On Wednesday, March 15th, 1391 his harangue was particularly effective, and his audience was roused to a high pitch of frenzy. On its way from the church, a turbulent crowd, thirsting with zeal and greed, surged towards the Jewish quarter, which seemed to be in imminent danger of sack. The civil authorities were at last awakened to the necessity of stern measures. Seizing two of the most turbulent members of the mob, they had them flogged, turned them into martyrs overnight. After some further disturbances, order was outwardly restored: but the spirit of unrest still simmered and Martinez continued his unbridled invective from the pulpit. These seemingly unimportant disorders are to be traced some of the greatest tragedies in history - the darkest page in the dark record of the Jewish people, one of the saddest episodes in the history of human thought, and the ultimate decline of sprain from the high status to which her achievements and her genius entitled her - everything, in a word, which is associated with the term, "the Spanish Inquisition"."

Tags:Christendom, Isabella, Jews

Abstract
This paper examines the impact that Martin Luther had on western Christendom. The paper first explains that, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the church was clearly unstable and, because so, had lost the dedication and spirit among many individuals that resided in England, at that time. The paper then looks at how Martin Luther had a huge impact on England and how his approach to Christianity did not fit in with the traditional and moral teachings of the late medieval church. Thus, ultimately, Martin Luther separated himself from the church and destroyed the religious unity of western Christendom.

From the Paper
"According to reporters, Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in October of 1517. When church officials had seemed to ignore Luther's call for reform, he then decided to circulate the papers throughout Germany in a continuation of defending his beliefs. The Ninety-Five Theses were quickly translated from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied; making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press.6 Martin Luther's papers had been an extremely controversial issue for many years regarding Christianity and the Catholic Church. On June 15, 1520, the Pope had warned Luther to withdraw from his writings and take down his papers that were nailed to the Catholic Church doors or face the consequences of excommunication from his native country where he would be forced out to live somewhere elsewhere. Consequently, Luther refused and was then excommunicated on January 3, 1521. "

Tags:church, Christianity, Protestant, Reformation

Abstract
This paper provides an account of how Islam came into being and how it manifests itself in the lives of its adherents today. Contrasts are made with other belief systems with a focus on Christianity.

Outline
Muhammad's Calling
Revelation of the Qur?an
The Three Sources of Teaching and Guidance
Islamic Expansion
Muhammad's Death Leads to Division
The Five Pillars of Islam
The Teaching of Islam and Daily Conduct of Muslims
Soul, Resurrection, Paradise, and Hellfire
Monogamy or Polygamy?
Islam and Daily Life
Conflict With and Within Christendom

From the Paper
"Muhammad's call to be a prophet took place when he was about 40 years of age. He had the custom of going alone to a nearby mountain cave, called Ghar Hira, for meditation, and he claimed that it was on one of these occasions that he received the call to be a prophet. Muslim tradition relates that while he was there, an angel, later identified as Gabriel, commanded him to recite in the name of Allah. Muhammad failed to respond, so the angel 'caught him forcefully and pressed him so hard that he could not bear it anymore.' Then the angel repeated the command. Again, Muhammad failed to react, so the angel 'choked him' again. This occurred three times before Muhammad started to recite what came to be viewed as the first of a series of revelations that constitute the Qur?an. Another tradition relates that divine inspiration was revealed to Muhammad like the ringing of a bell."

Tags:allah, arabic, koran, mecca, muhammad, muslim, qur, shar

Abstract
This paper discusses that these are very important elements of Myth attached to the Judeo-Christian tradition, which are important to the development of Western civilization. The author points out that the last 2000 years are telescoped under a theme of Christendom. The paper concludes that , we see that older myths remain powerful.