Abstract The paper discusses how the use of chlorine in the pulp and paper industry harms the environment. The paper first discusses other technologies that can rid the pulp and paper industry of its dependence on chlorine bleaching. The paper then provides many statistics that show that a lot more work has to be done to migrate from the detrimental system that uses chlorine. According to the paper, the elimination of chlorine-based bleaching is not only a good practice, but a common sense way to survive as humans.
From the Paper "Global warming is a real threat to the environment and the world today. We have seen the Arctic ice caps melt thereby seeing a rise in sea levels. The world is experiencing freak climate changes as a result of the global warming phenomena and this is all because of how humans abused the bounties of the earth. The ozone layer is already depleted due to the rise in greenhouse gases brought about by fossil fuel emissions. We could have done better but we did not, and we continually "rape and pillage" Mother Earth all in the name of profit and a convenient lifestyle. Fossil fuel emissions are not the only way we harm the environment. Even in the pulp and paper industry, the use of chlorine in bleaching these products and discarding the by-products also harm the environment."
Abstract This paper explains that the direct application of gaseous chlorine from pressurized steel containers is generally the most economical method for disinfecting large volumes of water. The author points out the types and sources of water pollution extend far beyond the ability of this single treatment process; therefore, American consumers should be aware that additional pollutants may continue to be present in their drinking water despite the best efforts of water treatment experts to make it safe. The paper suggests that taste or odor problems can be minimized through proper dosages of chlorine at the treatment plant with a residual concentration maintained throughout the distribution system to ensure a safe level at the points of use.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Review and Analysis
Background and Overview
Current Applications
Conclusion
From the Paper "Healthcare practitioners have long recognized that small amounts of toxic substances can sometimes have beneficial effects for humans, and this would seem to be the case with chlorine as well. As a chemical, chlorine is a toxic, corrosive, greenish yellow gas that is irritating to the eyes and respiratory system; it is two and a half times heavier than air. The substance becomes a liquid at -34C (-29F) and was first prepared from hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele; chlorine was widely regarded as a compound until research by Sir Humphry Davy showed (1810) that it cannot be decomposed and that muriatic (hydrochloric) acid is comprised of hydrogen and another true element that he named chlorine."
Abstract This paper examines the use of chemical and biological weapons during World War II. It uses many academic sources with eyewitness accounts of the horrors of this type of warfare. It discusses the types of chemical weapons used, such as mustard gas and liquid chlorine. The author discusses the attempts of the international community to abstain from this type of inhumane warfare since World War II.
From the Paper "All weapons cause damage, but what makes many chemical and biological materials so dangerous is the extent of the damage they can produce. These are weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Chemical and biological weapons are two of the three kinds of WMD, and nuclear weapons are the third type. Chemical warfare is the intentional use of toxic (poisonous) substances resulting in death or injury. World War I is universally considered the beginning of the era of "significant" use of chemical warfare due to the unique "confluence of chemical science and military technology" at the time. "
Tags: wmd, warfare, mass, destruction, german, britsh, french, mustard, gas, liquid, chlorine, world, war, i, wwii
From the Paper "There are various ways in which drinking water supplies can become contaminated. The two major sources for drinking water are surface water and ground water. About half of the nation's water supplies are provided by ground water (3:39). In rural areas, this figure is as high as 97 percent, because most of the water in those areas is obtained directly from the ground through wells (6:61). Both of these sources are subject to contamination. For example, surface water is contaminated by the chemicals, pesticides and other pollutants which are dumped into the nation's rivers and lakes. Ground water is contaminated by waste from landfills and also by leakage from hazardous-waste sites (6:61). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is aware of the "serious health risk" which is posed by this situation and has issued strict standards for the reduction of contaminants in ..."
Abstract This paper explains that the symptoms of campylobacter food poisoning usually present within 2-5 days after the consumption of the organism and include diarrhea, which may have blood or white blood cells in it, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache and muscle pain. The author points out that campylobacter is commonly found in raw chicken, raw milk and non-chlorinated water; the bacteria can be destroyed, thus preventing food poisoning, by cooking chicken, pasteurizing milk, and chlorinating drinking water. The paper relates that, although they are rare, there are a number of complications associated with the disease: Reactive arthritis, hemolytic uremic syndrome, septicemia and infections of organs, meningitis, recurrent colitis, acute cholecystitis and Guillain-Barre syndrome; the estimated case/fatality ratio for all C. jejuni infections is 0.1, meaning one death per 1,000 cases.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Cause and Nature
Victims and Extent of Disease
Complications
Foods and Outbreaks
Remedies
Conclusion
From the Paper "While there is usually only a small population of people affected at a time, generally fewer than 50, Bennington, VT experienced a "large outbreak involving about 2,000 people while the town was temporarily using a non-chlorinated water source as a water." Dairies can be responsible for outbreaks when children become infected during field trips, or if they do not properly pasteurize the milk according to industry standards, such as the case in 1986 when 32 students of an elementary school became infected."
A discussion on the effect of acid rain on forests and the way in which the deposition of acid rain and particles make plants and trees more susceptible to disease.
Abstract The following paper examines why environmental scientists are concerned that the level of acidity in rain and snow has increased beyond its normal levels in the United States. The writer discusses the ways in which this has had a serious impact in several areas, including forests in the northeast and many of the country's most valued monuments.
From the Paper "Munton (1998) expresses the same concerns. He notes that emissions have already been reduced by 50%. That is an impressive improvement, but perhaps still more than delicate ecosystems can stand. He suggests that we may need even more restrictive interventions in place, and points out that modern society's effects on the atmosphere goes beyond acid rain, which may also affect human health, but to breathable particulates, effects on the ozone layer, and regional haze making particular areas periodically more vulnerable to the effects of airborne pollutants.
"In conclusion, it may be too soon to be satisfied with our efforts so far. Given the tremendous amount of pollution released into the air, a 50% reduction may be a result that looks good on paper but that is still significantly damaging to our environment."
Abstract The treatment of wastewater is divided into three main categories: Primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment, where each stage contains several steps. This paper examines this purification and treatment process and explains each stage step-by-step.
From the Paper "The primary treatment stage involves the removal of physical contamination which includes grit, grease and solid particles. The first stage in this is a screening process, which filters our large particles. The next stage is grit removal, this is a settling stage where grit is allowed to settle out of the water under low flow conditions (Manahan 226). The final stage of the primary treatment is grease removal, which is achieved by allowing the wastewater to settle, with the grease materials floating on top. This top layer is then scraped off."
A look at the protection of public health from pollution, legislation, politics and economics including scientific knowledge, regulation, values, carcinogens, control of industry and chlorine.
3,600 words (approx. 14.4 pages), 21 sources, 1994, $ 127.95
From the Paper "Phasing-Out Chlorine: An Environmental Policy Examination
Introduction
From Love Canal to Columbia Beach to "Agent Orange" to the "ozone hole" to a myriad of other phenomena, the detrimental impacts on human health and environmental safety of chlorine byproducts gradually raised public awareness of the dangers associated with the industrial use of chlorine (Daniel, Reddy, Stober, and Olson, 1991, pp. 665-670; Daniel, Olson, and Stober, 1991, pp. 32-39). As public awareness of the hazards associated with the use of chlorine and chlorine byproducts has risen, so too have pressures for the..."
Abstract The paper investigates many factors relating to open drinking water reservoirs such as water purification, toxic chemicals and testing systems. The paper shows the risks faced by Portland's reservoir which include the dumping of prescription drugs, waste from tankers and busses and the threat of radon in the drinking water. The paper suggests ways in which the Portland municipality could improve the situation through testing and legislation. It also includes maps of the area to illustrate points.
From the Paper "While the water is safe perhaps it is not sterilized, which means that it does contain chemicals and other killer organisms. The best way to handle this situation is by protecting and regularly monitoring water from the main source so as to eliminate the possibility of potential contamination later on. To purify the water, treatment practices are used to get rid of the pathogenic organisms that are liable to enter into the water in the reservoir. Most of the water treatment techniques and technologies were actually developed several years ago to cure chloera and typhoid. These techniques are still applicable because they can still protect the public today like they have been for nearly a century. However, the new contaminants require new techniques to treat them, such as pathogens."
Abstract This paper talks about the significance that salt has had on the lifestyle of humans throughout history. The paper talks about salt's historical, economic, religious, financial, and cultural influence on human communities over time.
From the Paper "From time immemorial to the current age, the significance of salt to the human community and the animals has been vastly acknowledged. Ever since the time when salt made its entry, several millennia ago, it has vastly influenced the lifestyle of humans. This is not only with regard to the dieting pattern or the age-old food preserving industry. It also takes into account the human, financial, historical and religion adherent or orthodox planes. Finally, but in no way lesser in significance, salt has influenced the habit patterns and occult ways. Salt was significantly considered in exchange between the retailers, to the extent that it gave rise to "salt routes" via which merchants commenced the transportation and traded it to countries where there was no generation of salt. Salt is a priority in the chemical industry where it serves as a chief source for the vast array of chemical constituents."
Abstract Although the United States has one of the safest public water supplies in the world, it needs ongoing protection from both naturally-occurring and man-made contaminants. This paper discusses the public health history and current issues in water safety. The paper looks at what caused the United States to set standards for its public water supply, as well as the laws and statutes which were formulated. The paper also examines what the future holds and whether the United States' water supply is as safe as we think it is.
From the Paper "In March of 2001, the Bush Administration suspended the 1996 Amendments to the SWDA. They rejected the arsenic safety standards. In a highly controversial situation, after severe public heat and political backlash, in October 2001, the Bush Administration finally conceded to the 10 ppb value. However, during the suspension, the administration required new studies to be carried out, suggesting the earlier research was inadequate. As Senator Barbara Boxer (D-CA) stated, ?It came back and bit them in the arsenic.? In September 2001, studies by the National Academy of Sciences completed their new studies on arsenic exposure. Their new study stated that even 10 ppb is too high and recommended lowering the standard to 3 ppb in order to protect the public health."
This paper discusses Lake Baikal, located in Siberia near the Mongolian border, which offers an excellent example of one of the largest and oldest fresh water ecosystems that sustains a wide variety of flora and fauna, including innumerable endemic specie
Abstract This paper explains that, for millennia, Lake Baikal's ecosystem has flourished in total isolation, untouched by the human population. Unfortunately, today, this precious Siberian ecozone is feeling the negative effects of human abuse. The author points out that the Baikalsk Pulp and Paper Mill (BPPM), one of the region's oldest functioning industries (around 40 years), is the major polluting source because it exploits an old and highly dangerous method of bleaching pulp by using chlorine. The paper relates that, over the last decade, world environmentalists have helped improve the situation and limited the damage to the delicate ecosystem, but a coordinated effort from the Russian and Mongolian governments is indispensable for tackling this environmental crisis.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Lake Baikal
Importance of Lake Baikal
Environmental Effects (Air and Water Pollution)
The BPPM
Mineral Mining Plants
Conservation Projects
Baikal Watch and Baikal Environmental Wave
Conclusion
From the Paper "The biological importance of Lake Baikal is evident from the UNESCO declaration of Lake Baikal as a world heritage site and "the most outstanding example of a freshwater ecosystem". The range of climatic conditions within the surrounding areas of the lake has contributed to a rich variety of plant life in the region. While the Coniferous forests occupy the western regions, pine forests are common in the eastern areas and deciduous forests predominate the northern region. The fauna found in the lake is amongst the most diverse in the world with more than 255 amphipod species and 80 types of flatworms. The epishura, a tiny crustacean is the natural cleaning mechanism for the lake as it consumes all the decaying matter in the water. The most important and the only mammal species in the lake is the endemic Baikal seal (Phoca sibirica)."
This paper discusses that Candida Albicans, like other yeasts, is in and of itself harmless to humans; however, given the correct environment and stimulus, it can become lethal.
Abstract This paper explains that, for an infection or disease to occur from Candida Albicans, the most virulent and commonly discussed of the human pathogenic fungi, there must be some alteration of the host's cellular defenses, physiology, or normal flora before a colonization, infection, or disease production can take place. The author points out that, to date, research has not proven conclusively there is a common molecular component that links dimorphism and phenotypic switching; however, it is theorized that phenotypic switching may respond to both a change in the environment and a spontaneous event. This paper relates that persons with weakened immune systems are in particular danger from Candida Albicans, including patients with AIDS, cancer, burns, heart surgery, and genetic diseases and persons with stress or poor diet. Even chlorinated tap water can spark the overgrowth of Candida Albicans and lead to infection or disease.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Overview and Overgrowth of Candida Albicans
Figure 1. Localized Candidiasis Infection of the Toes
Phenotypic Switching in Candida Albicans
Genes Involved in Phenotypic Switching in Candida Albicans
Figure 2. Morphological Conversions of Candida Albicans
The Candida Albicans Genome
Conclusion
From the Paper "As mentioned, Candida Albicans lives in the mouth and digestive tract of approximately 80 percent of the human population, without harmful effects. The purpose of Candida albicans is to recognize and destroy harmful bacteria. Without it, the intestines would be at the mercy of a variety of pathogen bacteria. Candida Albicans cells number in the millions for healthy human beings. Normally, Candida Albicans is controlled by a properly functioning immune system as well as other "friendly" bacteria. Yet, for some, an overgrowth of the fungus occurs and results in a condition known as candidiasis."
This paper discusses the bio-invasion of a noxious seaweed caulerpa taxifolia, "killer algae", continuing to spread along the coasts of Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Croatia and Tunisia.
Abstract This paper explains that caulerpa taxifolia, which had been grown as an aquarium strain of caulerpa taxifolia bred for its pleasant appearance, rapid growth and tolerance for cold conditions, now is an accidentally introduced, invasive specie of algae, which has taken over the Mediterranean Sea. The author reports that the dense mono-cultures of the weed are smothering native plant and animal species, drastically reducing biodiversity, and, because of the toxic effects of the weed's caulerpenyne compounds, are making surviving fish, unsuitable for human consumption. The paper relates that some effective methods of eradication of caulerpa taxifolia are (1) covering and sealing by PVC tarpaulins, which were injected with chlorine, (2) applying coarse sea, (3) removing manually or using a sump-pump and (4) bio-control, which is the introduction of yet another non-native species that can combat caulerpa taxifolia.
From the Paper "Efforts have been made in attempt to eradicate Caulerpa taxifolia at high costs. Six million United States dollars have been spent in Southern California (another location of C. taxifolia invasion) as of 2004 to kill the weed. And in South Australia, yet another place the invasive algae have been introduced, six to eight million Australian dollars have been spent on killer algae extermination. The elimination of Caulerpa taxifolia, while very costly, is necessary."
Abstract This paper describes these scientific materials under the following titles: Product Identification
Product Labeling
Physical Properties
Extinguishing Media
Special Procedures for Fire Fighters
Special Equipment
Health Hazards
From the Paper "Highly toxic gas: Do not approach without vapor protection and appropriate protective clothing.
Small Spills:
- Isolate area 100 ft in all directions.
- Protect .2 miles downwind from spill during day, .8 miles downwind during night.
- Chlorine maybe absorbed in solution of caustic soda, soda ash or hydrated lime."
Large Spills:
- Isolate area 800 ft in all directions.
- Protect 1.5 miles downwind from spill during day, 4.6 miles downwind during night.
- Chlorine maybe absorbed in solution of caustic soda, soda ash or hydrated lime.
If fire is present:
- When possible, remove containers to avoid explosion.
- Use water only for smaller fires, do not use chemicals: Control run-off to avoid pollution.
- Once fire is extinguished, continue to cool containers: Avoid overcooling, as icing may occur.
- In case of large fire, use unmanned hoses or withdraw from the area. Explosion can occur.
