Abstract
This paper explores the issues of surrogate pregnancy. The various types of surrogacy are defined as well as the possible problems that may arise because of this arrangement. Despite the implications of surrogate parenting, the author concludes that this is a viable means for childless couples to become parents.

From the Paper
"Because gestational surrogacy does not genetically link the host mother with the gestational parents, relinquishment of the child after pregnancy would seem much simpler than if the mother carrying the baby is genetically linked with the baby. Traditional surrogacy, requiring the carrier mother's eggs to conceive a child, automatically brings forth the question of whether the genetic mother should have a continuing relationship with the child after birth (Jaggar, 1994). It is important that couples consider the implications of traditional surrogacy. Still other opponents argue it is more difficult for the genetic or gestational mother to bond with a child she has not carried. There is adequate research however, supporting the role of the genetic mother and legitimizing her right to raising her child (Beckman & Ciccarelli, 2005). This research suggests that genetic mothers when provided ample support and resources are just as likely to raise a healthy child whether they carried the child to term or not."

Tags:surrogate, parenting, pregnancy, egg, donation

Abstract
Judy Root Aulette's work "Changing American Families" challenges many of the traditionally held beliefs of what makes a family unit. This paper reviews several concepts presented in this book. First, the paper discusses childlessness by choice, and the flip-side, which is being a parent by choice. Also considered are the roles of grandparents, adoption as a parenting option, and the roles of mothers and fathers in modern society. Aulette also discusses the need for quality childcare. The paper concludes with a discussion of punishment and what it achieves for both parents and children.

From the Paper
"The idea of having a child and becoming a parent is increasingly being viewed as an option, as noted by Aulette's discussion of couples that are childless by choice. Birth control and more flexible views of the purpose of marriage have allowed couples to view childlessness as a liberating option, not as a curse or an example of their failure as a union. Aulette cautions the reader that simply because parenthood is not necessarily the purpose of every coupling or every marriage does not mean that one option, to have children or to not have children, is better or worse--rather both have become valid options in today's society. This is an empowering idea not just for persons who wish to remain childless, but for all couples--it is a reminder that having a child is a choice, not a destiny that is forced upon a couple."

Tags:children, childless, couples, punishment, parenting

Abstract
This paper explains that changes in the roles of Japanese women, such as independent dreams, work, and identities, are becoming more acceptable in theory; nonetheless, women are still charged with the full and untempered gender burdens of centuries past, such as being a ?good wife?, mother, and woman, leaving women with an impossible burden. The author points out that this stress is resulting in a declining birth rate because Japan is a country where women lose more than they gain by having a child; therefore, they are choosing to remain childless. The paper relates that Japan, unlike other industrialized countries, has been very slow to implement real governmental, business, and social changes that are supportive of women with children because Japanese society has a particularly rigid, male-dominated culture that is kept in place by economic factors of power and influence.

From the Paper
"However, although women in Japanese society were as psychologically perceptive and affected by these cultural and societal changes in values, and they were relatively quick to begin accepting new roles in that changing society, as is often the case; those same women were unable to "shake off" any of their old ones. Hence, Japanese women are "freed" on one hand to pursue society's new values, while chained, on the other, to old responsibilities, without increased participation of men. In short, they were free to add new responsibilities, as long as they were chained to the old, in a sense leaving them hobbled and unable to perform either old or new responsibilities under the weight of their chains. In other words, it is as author Suvendrini Kakuchi writes in his article, "Still a long way from gender equality," ?Japan may keep on making breakthroughs in the technological world, but when it comes to equality between the sexes, this East Asian country remains a laggard.?"

Tags:burden, wife, childless, rate, male-dominated

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the topic of surrogate motherhood. Specifically the author discusses the reasons why women choose to become surrogate mothers. The paper touches on the conflicting viewpoints on this issue including why some women choose to become surrogate mothers simply for the fees involved. However, the author also argues that there are other surrogates who do it because they truly care about childless couples. The paper stresses that surrogacy may not be for every woman, but there are very valid reasons to support surrogate motherhood, including giving childless couples a chance at parenthood.

From the Paper
"Surrogate mothers serve as artificial mothers for parents who cannot conceive and/or carry children on their own. Sometimes, the parents have healthy sperm and egg cells, but for some reason the mother cannot carry a baby to term. In this case, the eggs and sperm are harvested and they are implanted into the surrogate. In other cases, the woman's eggs are not healthy, and the male's sperm is used to fertilize the surrogate's egg, which the surrogate then carries to full term and delivers a baby. Either way, the surrogate carries the child for nine months, and then relinquishes the baby to the natural parents. In the United States and much of Europe, this is a legal procedure, and the surrogate receives a fee for carrying the baby. This is wrong. A woman should not carry a baby for money, no matter what the reason, and many experts agree."

Tags:children, motherhood, parenthood

Abstract
In this article, the writer concentrates on the short story 'The Chrysanthemums' by John Steinbeck to demonstrate that the author has the knack of using very few words to express a wealth of meaning. This was due to his effective use of symbolism. The writer discusses that throughout the story, Steinbeck uses the comparison of the growth of the blooming flowers and the corresponding bleak, sandy and barren land to show the couple's barren and childless life.

From the Paper
"She gives an explanation about the way to take care of the fragile blooms and then "stood up then, very straight, and her face was ashamed, since the tinker had mentioned once again that he did not have money to eat." When he first said this, he was just coming onto Elisa's property. Now, he mentioned again when she had talked so passionately. She feels embarrassed, because of the pleasure she showed in front of him. It was a one-sided, unrequited nonverbal communication. She walks over to the shed and gets two pots for him to fix, and pays him for the service. Elisa explains that she is perfectly capable of fixing the pots herself, so he knows that she is just helping him have some extra money. Yet, does Elisa really have the ability to fix the pots? Thus far, based on the story, it does not appear so."

Tags:barrenness, symbolism, relationship, Elisa

Abstract
This paper describes the traditional nuclear family as a mother, a working father and their biological or adopted descendants. The paper then summarizes the history of this family model. The paper then points out that there are also alternative family types such as childless families, same-sex or opposite-sex partners, families with same-sex parents, single parents, grandparents and a variety of relatives and friends and that the most common nuclear family today consists of two working parents. The paper concludes that, despite the fact that the myth of the model family is challenged on many fronts within society, it continues to exist as a strongly held belief within society.

From the Paper
"These variations in the format of families with respect to roles provide a great deal of information about changes in gender role behaviours within the family context over history. While it used to be expected that women would perform household duties and childcare, while men took care of the financial aspects of a family's existence, today it is much more common for the division of labour not to be arbitrarily determined by gender. Despite this, women do still complete the majority of housework and childcare within the United States."

Tags:generations survival same-sex, right winged conservatives, diversity

Abstract
This paper discusses the moral and legal ramifications of surrogacy being recognized by the law and by the state. It examines the impact this might have on childless couples, how the truth might effect the child in the future and how, in the end, the best interest of the child should be the main factor in this decision making process.

From the Paper
"A clean break from the child is what the mother must make. Deliver the baby and walk away--no binding emotional ties. Surrogate mothering takes place when an infertile couple asks another woman to carry their fertilized egg in her womb. The woman is usually paid to carry the embryo and once born she hand over the child to the couple. However, this creates a number of moral and ethical problems that are quite a dilemma. Though the concept offers a very effective solution to the problem faced by couples that are unable to have children the fact remains that the emotional toil on the surrogate is high. That there are legal problems involved is also something that cannot be doubted. Is the state entitled to interfere in a personal issue if a surrogate decides that she will keep her child? Then consider the medical issues."

Tags:child, surrogacy, adoption, legal, law

Abstract
This paper examines the incidence of breast cancer in the United States and how in any one year, the American Cancer Society predicts that over 200,000 women will be diagnosed. It looks at risk factors and early symptoms such as starting menstruation early, having menopause late; remaining childless via birth and giving birth for the first time at the age of 30 or older. It also discusses the various treatments available from mastectomies to chemotherapy and hormone replacement therapy.

From the Paper
"Another concern is that menopausal women have been encouraged to take hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to ease the symptoms of menopause. Some research suggested that HRT might help fight the development of osteoporosis and heat disease. However, research from Sweden has shown that some forms of HRT could account for 9% of their incidence of breast cancer (Napoli, 2003). An even more startling finding is that the surgery for breast cancer itself may cause cancer to spread. However, it might also be that even very small cancers have a tendency to spread undetected (Napoli, 2003). The surgical risk, if present, may extend to breast reconstruction surgery as well as the original surgery to remove the cancer."

Tags:chemotherapy, hormone, replacement, therapy, osteoporosis, masectomy

Abstract
This paper explains that, historically, many great medical advancements, such as anesthesia and heart transplantation, were fiercely rejected by many bio-conservative moralists, but now have gained acceptance. The author points out that people who disagree with human cloning believe the idea runs contradictory to the evolutionary need to retain a basic level of genetic variety and the variety in nature created by God. The paper stresses that human cloning could lead to situations where a completely new form of genetic and psychological counseling would become a necessity.

From the Paper
"A significant advantage suggested out of cloning is that it is a therapy for childlessness. The reasons for sterility are by genetic defects, wounds to the reproductive organs, hereditary defects and contact to poisonous material and waves. Sterile people can have an advanced possibility of success by human cloning. Many people are not sterile, as they cannot produce feasible gametes. For cloning technology a feasible sperm or egg is not required, any body cell will do. This technology will be able to avoid faulty gametes and permits sterile people to have their own biological children. By cloning technology, suicide, separation, clinical gloominess among sterile people can be stopped. The ideal gene treatment is likely by cloning technology, the real alteration or substitution of flawed gene series."

Tags:counseling, childlessness, ideal, variety, legal

Abstract
This paper analyzes the topic of surrogate mothers, discussing the many considerations to be taken into account when deciding to be a surrogate mother or selecting a surrogate mother. The paper provides information about laws concerning surrogate mothers, from various countries. Also illustrated are the sensitive issues for the surrogate mother to deal with after birth of the baby.

From the Paper
"Surrogate mothers have many battles to face giving their babies to the set of parents that want to receive them. "Between 50 and 100 babies a year are born to surrogate mothers in Britain" (Henderson 2). Italy is against using surrogate mothers for childless couples (Australian 1). Should couples that have had children be allowed to use surrogate mothers? What are the problems of selecting a surrogate mother? What are the steps to having a baby from a surrogate mother? If the surrogate mother has more than one baby, what happens? Are the proposed parents mandated to take more than one baby? What about expenses? Surrogate mothers offer hope to couples that have not been able to have a baby with the natural childbirth and to couples who have married for the second time who desire to have a baby, but there are many decisions that should be made first."

Tags:conception, birth, baby, adoption, childless, fertility, gestational, egg, sperm