Childbirth, the natural process of how we are born, has evolved along with technological advancements to prolong lives, reduce pain, and decrease mortality rates through advancements in technology. William Carlos Williams, born in 1883 in Rutherford, New Jersey, dealt with issues of childbirth through the course of his life as a pediatrician. After becoming a pediatrician in 1910, he practiced medicine there for most of his life, and wrote poems and stories about his life as a country doctor. During the course of his life, society began paying close attention to childbirth as medicine and technology advanced.
Abstract This paper analyzes the way in which nineteenth century childbirth procedures impacted Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein". It considers both the birth process in general and the experience in Shelley's own life in particular, as they relate to the tale of Victor Frankenstein and his monster.
From the Paper "Mary Shelley's Frankenstein is widely considered a novel that warns against the dangers of science. In the character of Victor Frankenstein, Shelley demonstrates how medical and scientific knowledge might be used to create a ghastly monster that experiences.."
Abstract This paper states that delayed childbirth is a growing trend in the United States and will continue to increase. This paper discusses that the literature indicates both advantages and disadvantages associated with having children later in life but, despite the advantages, there are certain pregnancy and labor risks. The author believes that nurses need more training in ways to assist mothers who decide to put off having their first child.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Factors Influencing Delayed Childbirth Advantages of Delayed Childbirth Disadvantages of Delayed Childbirth Pregnancy Outcomes for Mature Women
Nursing Interventions
Conclusions
From the Paper "In their discussion of disadvantages associated with delayed childbirth, the March of Dimes (1995) reports that women over 35 becoming pregnant for the first time are at increased risk for infertility and miscarriage, gestational diabetes, bleeding complications, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, cesarean section, and for chromosomal abnormalities and growth retardation in babies. Rates of premature delivery and stillbirth also are said to increase, as does the chance of having multiple births (e.g., twins, triplets or higher order births). It is further noted that since about half of all pregnancies for all women in the United States are not intended, including in women over 35, it is very important that all women of reproductive capacity follow guidelines to promote reproductive health and pregnancy."
Abstract Delayed childbirth is a changing trend in parenting consisting of the decision to put off pregnancy until one is 35 years of age or older. This paper examines the phenomena of delayed childbirth. The topics discussed in the paper include: factors influencing delayed childbirth; the advantages of delayed childbearing; the disadvantages of delayed childbearing; various pregnancy outcomes associated with delayed childbirth and nursing interventions designed to assist mature women in increasing their chances of having healthy pregnancies and healthy babies.
From the Paper "In their discussion of disadvantages associated with delayed childbirth, the March of Dimes (1995) reports that women over 35 becoming pregnant for the first time are at increased risk for infertility and miscarriage, gestational diabetes, bleeding complications, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, cesarean section, and for chromosomal abnormalities and growth retardation in babies. Rates of premature delivery and stillbirth are also said to increase, as does the chance of having multiple births (e.g., twins, triplets or higher order births). It is further noted that since about half of all pregnancies for all women in the United States are not intended, including in women over 35, it is very important that all women of reproductive capacity follow guidelines to promote reproductive health and pregnancy."
Abstract This essay examines the history of the medical model of childbirth and considers the effects of medicalization a natural process. The paper suggests that medicalization childbirth reinforces patriarchal power relations while often having negative effects on women's health.
From the Paper "The experience of childbirth in North America has undergone constant change since the decline of the midwife. It has been appropriated by men and by the medical establishment. It has been institutionalized and made unnatural. The positive effects of medical knowledge can be observed during difficult deliveries, however these occur relatively infrequently and their treatments are then applied to the greater population. The negative effects are most visible in women's health, but the medicalization of childbirth has also resulted in the loss of traditional knowledge systems, declining female control over the birthing process and the reinforcement of patriarchal power relations."
An examination of the differences between two ethnically distinct cultures whereby two women who have experienced the ritual of childbirth are interviewed ? one Asian and one Western.
Abstract Childbirth is a culturally-mediated event, and this essay reflects this view. The paper includes a discussion of how ritual is significant to every society and how it varies. It shows a number of inherent differences in the ritual of childbirth between the two cultures, as well as some striking comparisons. Both women and their experiences serve as case studies in each culture. The paper discusses how these women relate to issues such as pain relief, support structures during and after birth - particularly the role of the husband/partner, surgical interventions such as Caesarean section, the importance of postnatal care and differences in emotional expression during birth.
From the Paper "The experience of childbirth in any culture is a time of great anticipation and encompasses many different emotions, but is never simply a biological act. Childbirth in every culture around the world has been socially marked and shaped and there are quite marked differences in the ritual of childbirth from country to country. "The concept of "natural fertility" and "natural childbirth" are cultural constructs. Our lives are lived in socially independent groups guided by cultural rules." (MacCormack, 1982, p.2) Amongst other things, the ritual of childbirth may differ in where the birth occurred ? in the hospital or at home, the support structures provided or pain relief, and be influenced by cultural, traditional or religious beliefs. Scheper-Hughes (1987, in Davis-Floyd, 1997) and others put forward the argument that without culture, we would not have emotions, or at the very least be unable to interpret them. As such, culture is a very important factor in the analysis of the ritual of childbirth and emotion. Brigitte Jordan (1979), who many believe to be the mother of the study of childbirth, described birth as a "culturally grounded, biosocially mediated, and interactionally achieved event." "
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of pregnancy and childbirth in ancient Rome. The writer explains that since the birth of a child determined inheritance in Roman families, great care was taken in choosing a midwife who would care for the mother during her pregnancy and childbirth, administer postnatal care and take care of the newborn as well. The writer describes the three stages to a woman's pregnancy, and the many limitations and prescribed rules for each specific stage. The woman was almost helpless while pregnant; because everything was predetermined for her, including whether she would be allowed to keep her child.
From the Paper "The second stage of pregnancy was called Pica and started at about forty days after conception and lasted about four months. Women would have the general symptoms we have today such as nausea, upset stomach, fever, dizziness, and food cravings. These were signs that a human being has begun to form. In order to ease some of these symptoms, the woman was encouraged to do a one day fast and their stomachs were rubbed with oil. Their diets were also still limited in this stage to light foods, and they were supposed to remove anything unhealthy from their diets. Rose oil, myrtle, or unripe olive oil might also be applied to an upset stomach, as well as, a tightly wrapped woolen girdle."
Abstract The writer maintains that in today's world, an increasing number of women, especially those in the United States and Europe, are opting to postpone having a child well into their thirties, forties and even past the age of fifty. The writer explains that medically speaking, many doctors and OB/GYN's consider thirty-five as being quite young and see nothing wrong with a woman having a child beyond the age of forty, as long as the mother-to-be is healthy and realizes that the chances of getting pregnant by her own egg supply is greatly diminished after the age of forty. However, there are numerous economic and psychological factors, such as the cost of fertility treatments and the inevitable "ticking" of the biological clock, that women in these age groups must face in order to decide whether or not to become pregnant after the age of thirty. This paper looks at the effects and risks of delaying childbirth.
From the Paper "The psychological ramifications of procrastination, i.e. waiting for a long period of time before deciding to have a child, can be quite devastating. For example, a woman may feel that she has waited too long which may cause her to feel extremely depressed. To make matters worse, A.D. Domar points out that there is "increasing evidence that depression may contribute to infertility. Women with a history of depression have twice the infertility rates of women without a history of depression" (2000, p. 808).
One additional psychological result of waiting too long has to do with a feeling of desperation which may induce a woman to seek out medical assistance from those with poor track records regarding fertility treatment. Thus, the longer a woman delays becoming pregnant, the more she is susceptible to suffering psychological ramifications."
Abstract Pregnancy is a major life event for all women. However, when a psychiatric disorder is added to or exacerbated by the pregnancy then the problem requires expert knowledge from more than one area of medicine. This paper looks at pregnancy and the relationship with depression, eating disorders, and pathological fear of childbirth or tokophobia. It also examines the outcome for these women and their babies. Mental illness is a serious concern. It is now recognised that death from suicide is the leading cause of maternal death overall. Research in these areas is relatively sparse but an attempt is made to collate what is known.
Abstract
Depression Related To Pregnancy and Childbirth Infanticide
Eating Disorders
Miscarriage
Termination of Pregnancy
Pathological Dread and Avoidance of Childbirth (Tokophobia)
Tokophobia Classification
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Although the state of pregnancy is both normal for, and often desired by, women in early adulthood, it is not uncommon to experience anxiety at the physical and emotional consequences of the gravid state. It is not the purpose of this paper to comment on psychiatric and psychological descriptions of the "normal" pregnant woman but concentrate on some pathological psychiatric conditions that may effect pregnant women. Anxiety and fear of pregnancy and childbirth are documented features of eating disorders, mood disorders, and pathological dread and avoidance of childbirth or tokophobia. "
An examination of the reasons for, advantages and disadvantages of, pregnancy outcomes and nursing interventions related to a woman's decision to have children until she is 35 years or older.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 13 sources, 2000, $ 71.95
Abstract According to O'Reilly-Green and Cohen (1993), delayed childbirth is a changing trend in parenting consisting of the decision to put off pregnancy until one is 35 years of age or older. This report examines the phenomena of delayed childbirth.
From the Paper "Delayed Childbirth
Introduction
According to O'Reilly-Green and Cohen (1993), delayed childbirth is a changing trend in parenting consisting of the decision to put off pregnancy until one is 35 years of age or older. This report examines the phenomena of delayed childbirth. The topics discussed in the paper include: factors influencing delayed childbirth; the advantages of delayed childbearing; the disadvantages of delayed childbearing; various pregnancy outcomes associated with delayed childbirth; and nursing interventions designed to assist mature women in increasing their chances of having healthy pregnancies and healthy babies."
An examination of women's decisions to have children later in life. With reasons for, advantages and disadvantages, pregnancy outcomes and nursing interventions.
2,700 words (approx. 10.8 pages), 13 sources, 2000, $ 95.95
Abstract This paper examined the existing literature on delayed childbirth. It was noted that several factors contribute to delayed childbirth including: the decision to put off having children until one's education is completed, the decision to make career gains prior to motherhood, and so forth. The literature also indicated that there are both advantages and disadvantages associated with having children later in life but that despite the advantages, there are certain pregnancy and labor risks. These were said to include:longer first stage labor, greater intrapartum
From the Paper "Delayed Childbirth
Abstract
This paper examined the existing literature on delayed childbirth. It was noted that several factors contribute to delayed childbirth including: the decision to put off having children until one's education is completed, the decision to make career gains prior to motherhood, and so forth. The literature also indicated that there are both advantages and disadvantages associated with having children later in life but that despite the advantages, there are certain pregnancy and labor risks. These were said to include:longer first stage labor, greater intrapartum fetal distress, the need for need more intramuscular analgesia during labor, higher rates of cesarean delivery, higher rates of birth asphyxia, greater fetal growth restriction..."
Abstract This paper explains the contents of the video briefly, stating that it is designed to explain both the intricacies and enchantment of childbirth and the benefits of what has been called the "Lamaze Techniques" of natural childbirth, one in which natural relaxation and breathing, coached by the husband/partner is used. The writer examines each section separately, explaining what the scene and providing critique of the methods used.
From the Paper "Promotion material on the Lamaze web site says that "Celebrate Birth!" appeals to the intellectual, emotional, and intuitive sides of viewers. It explains the design of the birth process, suggests and models labor skills, and shows expectant parents and caregivers that birth can be a positive and empowering experience (www.lamaze.com). After viewing and analyzing the tape, it seems that it appealed more to the emotional, than to the intellectual or intuitive (whatever that means in terms of childbirth)."
Abstract This paper discusses Carol Laderman's book, "Wives and Midwives: Childbirth and Nutrition in Rural Malaysia", presenting an anthropological evaluation of the effects of nutrition on the women of Malaysia. The paper examines Laderman's focus on women, including marriage, childbirth, and sexual values. The paper analyzes the cultural superstitions regarding food and nutrition for women.
From the Paper "Medical anthropology, which combines the disciplines of physical anthropology, ethnography, linguistics and archeology, presents a ?picture of the human condition in the round,? author Laderman writes in her Introduction. And medical anthropology can also be employed to try to understand ?the workings of a culture,? she adds. Indeed, the way a culture works in one part of the world sheds light and understanding on how cultures work in all corners of the world, which is the principal reason for anthropological study. As for the purpose behind her studies and her book, Laderman writes (7) that she intended to focus on the diet (nutrition) of women following childbirth, but to be thorough, she needed to know if ?the diet during pregnancy varied from the non-pregnant diet,? in order to understand the changes that take place "during the puerperium" (the time between when a woman gives birth and when her uterus returns to its normal size)."
Abstract The paper relates that the birth experience has an impact on parental attachment to the infant, which can affect the quality of parenting for the child. The paper examines the factors that facilitate stronger attachment of the fathers to their infants. The paper presents an interview with a subject (referred to as BM) that reflects a more traditional view of the childbirth experience. The paper highlights how those responsible for a patient's care must be sensitive to all of their needs and must recognize the important role of fathers.
Outline:
Fathers and Pregnancy
Cultural Differences in Reactions to the Childbirth Experience
Case Analysis
From the Paper "Cultural constraints of the past considered having children to be solely the role of the woman. However, recently these social roles have changed and fathers are now expected to be concerned over their pregnant spouse and to take a more active role in the birth experience. Despite these findings, fathers still report that they feel a lack of emotional involvement in the childbirth experience (Williams and Umberson, 1999). Evidence supports the suggestion that greater levels of involvement by fathers results in lower levels of stress. This helps both parents make the transition to parenthood (Williams and Umberson, 1999)."
Abstract The paper analyzes a study "Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Due to Childbirth- The Aftermath" by Cheryl Tatano Beck that investigates post-traumatic stress disorder in relation to childbirth. The paper looks at the design, purpose, variables, hypotheses, sample and setting and the study instruments used.
Outline:
Problem
Study Purpose
Research Question
Hypotheses
Study Variables
Conceptual Model/Theoretical Framework
Review of Related Literature
Study Design
Sample and Setting
Identification and Control of Extraneous Variables
Study Instruments/Tools
From the Paper "Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is classified as a mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). It commonly occurs in individuals who had extremely traumatic experiences. The disorder is most commonly reported among war veterans.
"Problematic childbirth can also be a traumatic experience for mothers that can lead to PTSD. It is estimated that worldwide, there is a 1.5 to 6% prevalence of childbirth-induced PTSD. Manifestations of PTSD have been reported as recurring nightmares, depression, interpersonal relationship problems, suicidal tendencies, and sexual avoidance."
