Abstract
This paper is about how genetic engineering is changing the healthcare industry, and what moral and ethical issues have arisen in the age of stem cell research. The paper discusses the benefits of stem cell research and how that could change the way we can cure illnesses and treat patients.

From the Paper
"What is Genetic Engineering? Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of the DNA of an organism. In the process, the genetic make up of the organism is altered to serve a certain purpose. Ever since the discovery of the DNA structure by Watson and Crick, the field of molecular biology has moved leaps and bounds. The rapid progress has brought benefits as well as problems. Benefits: Genetic engineering was successful in altering the genetic make up of..."

Tags:genetic, engineering, healthcare

Abstract
This paper explores the topic of genetic manipulation, with an inclination toward caution. The paper explains that geneticists now have the knowledge and capability to create offspring that can be devoid of certain genes that lead to behaviors or appearances that some would deem unacceptable. The paper asserts that these same geneticists can also manipulate genes to bring about acceptable changes to individuals who seek such changes; DNA analysis has identified genetic markers for diabetes, height, and lactose intolerance. The paper claims that such manipulations can have direct and dire effects on individuals, and on the local and worldwide communities in which we live. The paper concludes by wondering if the geneticists are genetically disposed towards scientific pursuits, and if so, whether their behavior can be changed through gene manipulation.

From the Paper
"The scientific community now knows that there is a gene that most people have that hides the taste of that compound. The significance of these discoveries (at least according to Harmon) is that her life is not preprogrammed, but her likes and dislikes, the way she looks as well as how she acts and feels are affected to a much larger degree than what she used to think was possible.
"For instance, if instead of being a journalist, Harmon grew up to be a dancer, her body might have to adapt to a lot of wear and tear not facing her as she writes her articles. Dancers are oftentimes beset with aches and pains throughout their respective careers and a large percentage of them face hip surgery as they near their 50's, due in part to contracting arthritis of the hips."

Tags:denialism, paranoia, fear, heredity, chromosomes, phenotype, genotype, ethics, scientific, advance

Abstract
This paper examines how technological advances have changed the field of genetic engineering, with special emphasis placed on the field of food. The author gives a brief history of the field of genetic engineering and its evolution over the years. The paper discusses the importance of plants in developing food for humans and details how scientists have worked to perfect this process. The many different problems that have arisen from genetic engineering are detailed, and the author also details some suggestions that may help prevent these problems from recurring, including tighter regulations by the FDA. The author feels that if there was more government intervention then the advantages would begin to outweigh the disadvantages in this growing field.

From the Paper
"Genetic engineering in plant species, meanwhile, is encouraged and has been in practice for many years. The process of modifying a plant's genetic make-up is encouraged because these kinds of study and process helps in providing new means by which people can obtain food, since plants are the primary source of food that humans consume. In order to make plants efficient in their food production, scientists have found ways by which particular plant specie will acquire a characteristic that will make the newly developed plant superior or better than its "parent" specie. The modifications commonly used in genetic engineering of plants are the increasing variety of rice grains, wherein certain plants or crops are described as immune to pests or any kind of diseases, has greater life and not susceptible to certain afflictions that destroys plant life and development, and are more adaptive to several conditions such as changes in climate, soil type, or fertilizers used."

Tags:environment, organisms, science, cures, diseases, conditions, altered, production, crop, energy, efficient, biotech, fda, toxic, mutation, superior, risk, health, regulations, safety

Abstract
This paper deals with the subject of genetic engineering, explaining the process that is involved in carrying it out and of transmitting the specifically designed changes to successive generations via genetic inheritance. The author also provides some historical background and discusses the ethical controversies that surround this subject.

Outline:
Background and History
Beneficial Applications
Ethical Controversies

From the Paper
"British microbiologist Fred Griffith identified two forms of the pneumococcus bacterium distinguishable by the presence or absence of a smooth exterior cellular coating responsible for its resistance to the human immune system response. Griffith accidentally transmitted that characteristics of the deadly pneumococci responsible for human pneumonia to subsequent generations of the harmless pneumococci that lacked that distinctive exterior coating (Aldridge 1998).
"The subsequent discovery of the underlying structure of the DNA molecule and specific mechanism of genetic inheritance announced by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1957 lead to the eventual explosion of DNA sciences including the purposeful alteration of genetic material to produce desirable genetic traits in biological organisms. In fact, so much research into the mechanics of human heredity were conducted in the
interim between Griffith's first experiments that culmination in their 1957 announcement for which they shared a Nobel Prize, that the work of Watson and Crick is considered by many to unfairly overshadow the valuable contributions of Griffith and other predecessors (Gibbon 2002).

Tags:beneficial, breakthrough, inheritable

Abstract
This paper discusses how genetic engineering refers to a number of biotechnologies that are used to combine or manipulate genes or genetic material to produce new physiological traits in the organism or in the next generation. The paper then looks at how genetic engineering includes some aspects of gene therapy, stem cell research, and cloning as well. It also discusses how genetic engineering has come under fire when it has been used in the production of new foods because of the fear that these foods may have unfortunate and unforeseen consequences for the population eating those foods. In addition, the paper discusses other research that has sought to splice genes and manipulate genetic material so as to cure diseases by changing bodily characteristics to fight off the causes of disease. The paper continues with a look at the benefits of genetic engineering and concludes that The field is really in its infancy, and the possibilities are increasing by the day. Each new line of research opens new possibilities for more research tomorrow.

From the Paper
"Stem cell research is related to cloning and is also called therapeutic cloning, a term that refers to the cloning of cells the removal of stem cells from the pre-embryo in order to produce tissue or a whole organ to be transplanted back into the person who supplied the DNA. The reason for this is "to produce a healthy copy of a sick person's tissues or organ for transplant," which "would be vastly superior to relying on organ transplants from other people" ("Embryo Cloning, Adult DNA Cloning and Therapeutic Cloning" paragraph 4). For one thing, the problem of rejection is overcome in this manner without the need for specialized drugs. The supply of tissue that could be cloned is virtually unlimited, and this would eliminate waiting lists for transplants."

Tags:genes, stem, cell, DNA, Cloning

Abstract
This paper provides insight into genetic engineering and gene therapy, the changing of an organism's genes in order to remove unwanted characteristics within an organism or to add other characteristics. In particular, it examines how genetic engineering techniques can be used to identify and treat certain diseases as well as aid doctors in creating custom-made drugs for specific patients. It shows that while the current application of genetic engineering on humans is limited, the hope is that genetic engineering will be able to treat many common diseases. It also describes the controversial issues surrounding its use with doctors, ethicists, religious groups and politicians and examines why science should be careful when applying this technology.

From the Paper
"The use of gene therapy began on September 14, 1990 and was use to treat a four-year old girl who was suffering from adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. This is a fatal disease that attacks the immune system. The problem was that her cells were not creating the ADA enzyme necessary for the immune functions of the cells. Doctors at the National Institute of Health in Bethesda Maryland removed blood cells from the patent and modified them with a viral vector from normal ADA genes. When the blood was infused back into the girl's blood stream, the ADA gene programmed the cells to produce the missing enzyme. This helped the girl to develop a resistance to infection, albeit temporarily (Isasi, 2002)."

Tags:cells, dna, testing, therapy

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that people have known since time immemorial that it is possible to breed animals and plants to enhance their desirable characteristics and to 'breed out' their undesirable traits. In addition, the writer points out that many have argued that, since it is possible to breed horses for speed or stamina, it should be possible to breed human beings for specifically human qualities such as intelligence, kindness, and sociability. The writer discusses that with the advent of the genetics after discovery of DNA and the subsequent development of recombinant DNA techniques, this vision reemerged in a new guise. The writer maintains that because genetic research poses great opportunities for humanity to treat incurable disease and change humanity's negative features, genetic research also hides its many threats such as unexpected and non-predictable results, ethical and moral dilemmas. The writer concludes that society must be aware of the possible uses and misuses that may be made of biotechnology in the future.

From the Paper
"The new techniques provided a way of isolating specific genes and inserting them in the cells of gene-caused diseases such as sickle cell anemia. The inserted gene would then take over from the defective genes. More than 4000 diseases are thought to result from the defective functioning of a gene or a set of genes and if it were possible to identify the location or site of each gene on a chromosome, it might be possible to replace the defective gene by gene therapy or gene manipulation. Scientists have identified some specific gene defects or abnormalities: some of these defects increase the risk of diabetes, others are linked to the risk of manic-depression and schizophrenia, some again result in dwarfism, or terrible disability. Many of the so-called monogenic diseases - those caused by the malfunctioning of a single gene - can now be detected while the embryo is in the uterus. The only alternatives for a woman carrying an embryo with a severe genetic disorder are either to go through with the pregnancy or to have it terminated."

Tags:DNA, techniques, cell, gene

Abstract
In this article, the writer presents an overview of the re-classifications that have occurred within the Kingdom Protista. The writer discusses how new technologies such as light and electron microscopy and molecular genetics contributed to the changing taxonomic relationships. The writer presents examples of the classification changes that have occurred in four types of protists.

From the Paper
"Protists as a group seem to continually evade a concrete classification scheme. Lumped together as Kingdom Protista or Protoctistain because they did not appear to fit into the other kingdoms they have recently become the subject of new research and have been continually reclassified. The difficulty in classifying protists is due to their innate phylogenetic diversity yet apparent morphological similarities and small size. Because most protists are not visible to the ..."

Tags:protists, protista, taxonomy, phylogeny, classification, protozoa

Abstract
This paper explains that the Spaniards introduced the technical use of the wheel, domestic animals, including the horse, and many new plants, such as grains, fruits, vegetables, and weeds to the New World; in return, the Americas offered Europe many new foods like potatoes, tomatoes, peanuts, almost all beans, and tobacco. The author pointed out that the Spaniards intermarried with the Indian aristocracy, which had a genetic influence on the population of the Americas. The paper relates that the cultivation of rice and bananas, both introduced, led to marked deforestation, which has had a large-scale impact on the environment.

From the Paper
"The isolation of western populations prior to Columbus? arrival made the people of the Americas vulnerable to European diseases and oppressive cultural influences, like Christianity and slavery. The initial interest the Spaniards had in the New World was to spread Christianity and loot the resources. Shipping to and from Europe was expensive and so it was necessary to locate resources worth the travel. Thus, one of the most valuable assets proved to be the Indians themselves, and so started the Atlantic slave trade."

Tags:disease, genetic, rice, slavery, christianity

Abstract
Modern ecological pressures are very different from those faced by early Homo Sapiens and other early hominids. Changes have taken place in DNA structures sometimes relating to our environment and our sociological issues. In the paper the author examines issues related to these changes and the results in Homo Sapiens and Homo Neanderthalensis.

From the Paper
"Our four micro evolutionary forces; mutations, gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection have far different results in modern man and in fact the move from natural selection to self-domestication is changing man into some kind of pseudo robot form and the environment into a kind of pseudo self supporting bionomic. From hospitals who save the rare mutation that may have succumbed in nature, from importing and exporting to favor those with the 'wrong' genes in the 'wrong' area regarding gene flow, from the highly mobile human and his ability to intermingle with anyone around the world regarding genetic drift and back again to the doctors who save those that may succumb to natural selection; we have annihilated our four micro evolutionary forces into oblivion."

Tags:neanderthal, dna, paleolithic, environment, hominid, evolution, africa, mutation, anthropology, genetics