This paper looks at the loss of certainty in definite truth by characters in 'Death of a Salesman' by Arthur Miller and 'The Crying of Lot 49' by Thomas Pynchon.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 4 sources, 2005, $ 53.95
Abstract In this article, the writer looks at the characters in 'Death of a Salesman' by Arthur Miller and 'The Crying of Lot 49' by Thomas Pynchon. The writer discusses how the characters suffer the loss of the certainty in the definite truth of their lives. The writer notes that ultimately, the characters find a truth in their lives; however, it is not the same as the Truth that they each believed in initially. This paper examines the loss of certainty in definite truth in these works, through the context of the influence of the American Dream on their lives.
From the Paper "The characters in both Arthur Miller's "Death of a Salesman" and Thomas Pynchon's 'The Crying of Lot 49' suffer the loss of the certainty in the definite truth of their lives. Willy has seen his certainty erode over a lifetime, only to be forced to face the truth that nothing is as it has seemed, or as he wanted it to be, as the play draw to a close. Oedipa, however, is thrust into a situation which turns her world uncertain, and which requires her to look for the truth. Ultimately, both of these characters find a truth in their lives; however, it is not the same as the Truth that they each believed in initially."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that in John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and David Hume's "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding", both philosophers examine the theory of knowledge and the aspects of ideas, relationships, and certainty. The writer notes that Locke used the different types of knowledge (intuitive, demonstrative, and sensory) to discuss the level of certainty of ideas based on their degree of probability and margin of error. The writer then points out that Hume, on the other hand, did not believe that anything outside of the sensory field, such as metaphysical discussions, could be considered certain. The writer concludes that Hume's theory was that certainty was only found in factual elements which were based on sensations of objects which had spatial, sequential or mathematical relationships, whereas Locke used deductive reasoning and degrees of probability to discuss with a level of certainty, the existence of objects and ideas outside of the sensory range.
From the Paper "Locke's degree of certainty, which was more highly associated with intuitive and demonstrative knowledge, and different than the degree of certainty linked with sensitive knowledge, did present some disagreement at the time by critics, even though his theory led to the idea of solipsism (the idea that only the self can be known to exist). Contrary to their criticisms, he did not dismiss knowledge which had been derived through sensory experience. What Locke did suggest however, was that knowledge resulting from sensory experience could not be extended to general truths and in fact had a different, and not as strong, degree of certainty as those of intuitive and demonstrative knowledge. Certainty, for Locke, was based on degree, which increased or decreased depending on the probably and the margin of error which was allocated to each element (Wolff, 2006). In addition, he did not dismiss aspects of knowledge which did not have less than perfect certainty but rather placed the degrees of certainty in a hierarchy."
Abstract This paper analyzes the greater certainty of mind over the physical external world in the philosophy of Rene Descartes. It discusses how by understanding the origins of thought in the mind, the presence of external objects are only perceived through this organ of the human body. It looks at how therefore, Descartes viewed the external world as unknowable by the mind because he viewed the human conscious as an internal and separate distinction from reality. In essence, the paper shows how Descartes provides a philosophical argument that provides a greater certainty of the mind over the external physical world in his "Meditations on First Philosophy. "
From the Paper "This describes the inherent sense of unknowing that pertains to understanding the physical body that the unreasoning human mind cannot grasp on its own. Descartes uses the example of the human body to determine the nature of the external world outside of the mind to logically deduce that the mind is a limited tool for discerning what is real and what is not. This provides the premise that although Descartes is able to feel and know the human body, the whimsical nature of the human mind often prevents logical reasoning to bring light to external realities. "
Abstract The paper discusses how Simon Schama, in "Dead Certainties", tells a fascinating story that combines two deaths. The paper examines how the story is reminiscent of historical mysteries, like "The Plague Tales" and "An Instance of the Fingerpost". The paper further analyzes how Schama has imparted a literary dimension to the bare facts of history, revisiting the story of Wolfe, the British hero of the 1700s on the 'Heights of Abraham'.
From the Paper "The novel can be read as a story of death. Schama has a serious point to make by writing in this accessible style. The historical events are often highly ambiguous; that the records are often contradictory, and that writing history requires historians to provide the continuity by interpreting the past subject. The second half deals with the case of Parkman's mercurial Uncle George--exacting landlord, physician, authority on insane asylums--whose dismembered body parts were found at Harvard Medical College one week after he disappeared on Thanksgiving Day, 1849. Although a genial, expansive Harvard chemistry professor was hanged for the crime, the conflicting testimony presented here casts doubt on the verdict. Schama ( Citizens ) blends fact, speculation and fictitious dialogue in a chronicle as gripping as a good detective novel."
A discussion of whether Mikhail Bulgakov's use of the fantastic in "The Master and Margarita?" is designed to undermine, even to ridicule, the ?certainties? of the materialist world-view.
1,851 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 0 sources, 2002, $ 59.95
Abstract This paper reviews Mikhail Bulgakov's book "The Master and Margarita" and examines his views on the accepted Soviet stand on fate, human nature, atheism, censorship, personal identity documentation and forced literature. It looks at how through the use of the fantastic in his novel Bulgakov seeks to ridicule and undermine the foundations of these Soviet certainties. It shows how throughout the novel Bulgakov's use of implausible and incredible happenings effectively undermine the ?certainties? of the materialist world. It analyzes how Massolit is destroyed, bureaucracy is ridiculed, xenophobic attitudes are parodied and institutions and theories are mocked relentlessly, even in the epilogue. It examines how the Soviet machine is even able to rationalize the supernatural and how this rationale creates such absurdities as people arresting cats and furthermore, giving glowing references for their release. Bulgakov's use of the fantastical as a device to satirize and thereby undermine accepted ?certainties? of his time is genuinely masterful.
From the Paper "Throughout the novel, Bulgakov bends the parameters of space, time and imagination, for the Moscow residents, and the reader. Passports, papers, people and money all come and go at Woland's will. Parties that last for hours take only minutes. Guns have no effect and people start to fly. Despite the fact that Soviet Citizens are generally used to mysterious disappearances, and unexplained circumstances, such as those that often lead to arrest, during the Devil's stay in Moscow, they are understandably bewildered. The rumours cannot be put down until the Devil and his retinue have left."
Abstract The following paper discusses and gives examples of how new ideas and knowledge are offered to public consciousness and that they are in turn either accepted or disregarded and whichever judgement is chosen, makes a statement about where society places its trust, how ready we are to accept change and how radical we will allow any changes to be. This paper distinguishes between different kinds of knowledge: Medical (scientific knowledge), Religious knowledge, Political ideologies and Social Science theories.
From the Paper "Medical knowledge is an area which appears to be constantly advancing and changing, new ideas are regularly offered to the public consciousness to be either accepted or disregarded and whichever judgement is chosen makes a statement about where society places its trust, how ready we are to accept change, how radical we will allow any changes to be and whose theories and evidence mass society is willing to accept. An example of this is Alternative Medicine, although it is more accepted now than in previous years like, aromatherapy massage which is now actively promoted by mainstream health professionals as a complimentary therapy during pregnancy and treatment of bad backs, we even have a small number of practitioners qualified in alternative therapies, like homeopathy, scientists have even remarked in the age old profession of palmistry being very accurate in the diagnosis of certain illnesses, the setting up of The Royal Society in 1662 emphasised the 'expert knowledge' camaraderie between so-called experts over common sense knowledge. 'Expert knowledge' was historically endorsed and distributed by middle and upper class male establishments like the Royal Society which was founded by Charles II and allowed male members only and women were only allowed to qualify in Medicine in 1876. This male superiority increased authority to this group in society; their medical knowledge trusted and officially endorsed which in turn dismissed female 'common sense' knowledge."
A look at Ludwig Wittgenstein as a philosopher of the era of the world wars through a review of two of his texts, "Tractacus Logico-Philosophicus" and "On Certainty".
3,150 words (approx. 12.6 pages), 3 sources, 2002, $ 115.95
Abstract This paper is a detailed analysis of two texts by Ludwig Wittgenstein. "Tractacus Logico-Philosophicus" and "On Certainty" are each discussed in relation to particular biographical information that relates to the content of the books and the changing philosophical ideas that are represented in these writings.
Abstract This paper explores Ludwig Wittgenstein's foundationalist approach to mainstream scepticism. It examines how it appears that one may, at first glance, equate his response with that of Moore (for example); the very person whose position he wishes to dismiss, however, this paper unearths from within Wittgenstein's last major work, "On Certainty', an altogether innovative an ingenious approach to scepticism.
From the Paper "What therefore are the implications of Wittgenstein's critique of Moore's claim to knowledge? To answer this question it may be worth referring once more to the primary excerpts (?151), i.e. ?regarding it [e.g. "here is a hand"] as absolutely solid is part of our method of doubt and enquiry.? Now, to his credit, Moore recognised the fundamental importance of such assertions, but what he failed to identify were the special roles that these "truisms" play within our whole system of knowledge, or the part they play in our whole "method of doubt and enquiry". Indeed, according to Wittgenstein, fundamental claims such as ?my name is C.P.? "there is a tree" or "here is a hand", are the "hinges" upon which our arguments turn (?655), "if I want the door to turn, the hinges must stay put" (?343)."
Abstract This paper shows how fixated Eliot was on the topic of death and the period of passing between life and death as seen in his poem "The Waste Land".
From the paper:
"Much of the power of T.S. Eliot's 1922 poem The Waste Land, lies in the poet's focus on the middle ground between life and death. As a man who had experienced no small success in life, he could look at the period of living as a time of at least some pleasures. And as a Christian, he could assume that after death he had a good chance at entering paradise. But even the Christian must fear the process of death, that time between when the pleasures and certainties of life have been relinquished and that time when one's soul actually is welcomed into heaven."
Tags: poetry, literature, liminal, World, War, One
Abstract This paper explains that traditional financial thinking relies on assumptions of certainty, complete knowledge and market efficiency and in this context, financial decisions should be relatively straightforward. In the real world though, many times what is observed deviates greatly from what would be expected using traditional financial thinking. This paper therefore uses different game theory models to more accurately explain observed financial decisions dealing with capital structure, corporate acquisitions and initial public offerings (IPOs).
From the Paper "Game theory has made great strides in explaining many of the observed phenomena falling under corporate finance. One example is the capital structure decided upon by a firm's management. Capital structure deals with the firm's decision to raise funds through debt versus equity and what ratio of debt to equity should the firm maintain. Modigliani and Miller in 1958 showed that in perfect capital markets (i.e. no frictions and symmetric information) and no taxes a firm could not change its total value by altering its debt/equity ratio; thus capital structure is irrelevant. However in the real world, capital structure is carefully thought about by every company, and it is in fact not irrelevant because taxes do exist and capital markets are not perfect."
Abstract An analysis of several aspects of Christianity including morals and truth. The paper details the following four major ideas according to Christianity: Certitude, morality, belief and compassion. A definition of these four concepts as well as examples of how they are defined in Christianity is discussed. In conclusion, the paper states that sometimes Christianity sells uncertainty and vagueness. The author advises questioning.
From the Paper "Morality is subjective and intangible. It is different for all of us. Some people may believe that premarital sex is awful, while many others may not understand what all the fuss is about. Weather or not you think that morality is subjective or not, the fact remains that none of us can reach a consensus about what is right and what is wrong. Most of us are content to live and let live. As long as our neighbor isn?t doing something to us directly we can, for the most part, overlook their idiosyncrasies. If we are doing something in the privacy of our own homes that affects no one but ourselves we expect to be left alone. One of the many problems with Christianity is its inability to accept the fact that morality is subjective."
Abstract The paper examines Rene Descartes' theory of "Methodological Doubt" which focuses on the certainty of God and human and material existence, and shows how they are some of the most famous passages in philosophy today.
From the Paper "Descartes strived to create a complete philosophy that was free of any contradictions. He began by rejecting all previous doctrines and dogmas laid down by the earlier philosophers. He resolved to begin by doubting everything so that he could come up with a stable basis for his philosophy. The method he created and adopted was methodological doubt. This methodological doubt became known to many to be a pre-requisite of honest thought."
A discussion on the difference between appearance (how we learn about things through our senses) and a deeper reality, using George Eliot's 1859 Adam Bede as a reference.
Abstract The following paper examines how Charles Darwin's discoveries had a substantial effect on the writers of his age. This paper discusses literature of the Victorian age focusing on the importance of the senses, when reading books from this era. The writer discusses the ways in which important authors of this era were fascinated by the ways in which their characters and themselves were linked to the world through the use of their senses and that sensory information could be counted upon to be reliable in a way that few other things might be in a world in so much flux.
From the Paper ?The world of Victorian writers and readers was one whose epistemological and physical borders were each day being pushed further back. For those living in such times the choices were to sink into a reactionary railing against such change or to embrace it ? and the most direct way to embrace it whether in science or art of simply in life was to walk through the world with one's senses entirely and absolutely engaged, George Eliot's 1859 Adam Bede is very much a work of Realism and in it we see the author's warning that while fuzzy Romantic writers might think that could discern the true nature of a person simply through the act of observation, the Realist novelist and reader were not so easily fooled.?
Abstract This paper analyzes the classic American novel by John Steinbeck, ?Of Mice and Men.? It looks at the lives and relationship of the two main characters George and Lennie, as they drift from ranch to ranch as migrant farm workers. The paper provides biographical information about Steinbeck's life. The author writes that "Of Mice and Men" is a novel of crushed hope and the cruel certainty of the American Dream.
From the Paper "It is a story of friendship between two men, one apparently worldly but in fact faithful to his companion, "a nice fella" who means no harm but does not know his own power and does "bad things" as he likes to handle and stroke soft, warm animals, whether the fur of mice rabbits and puppies or the hair of women. All who observe them come to desire the bond between George and Lennie, as they ?are not like other guys. Each one begins by imagining the connection between the little guy and the big one, but their suspicions are soon overcome by Lennie's simplicity and George's protecting love for him, a love that as a final point swells to killing his friend so that no one can hurt him."
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to examine Bernard Williams's statement that "there would be a radical difference between ethics and science even if ethics were objective in the only way in which it intelligibly could be" (155). The plan of the research will be to set forth the context in which Williams makes this statement, and then to discuss the distinctions he makes between the subjectivity of moral philosophy enterprise and the objective methodology of the hard sciences.
The closest Williams comes to acknowledging the scientific potential of human reason is his assertion of thick concepts, which he says "express a union of fact and value" (129). The density of such concepts appears to derive from the extremity of emotion and action that is implicit in them. Thus brutality and courage are on the list but not such less vigorous description of value..."
