Abstract
The paper explains how the Celts had an influence on the history of Ireland. The paper discusses early Irish mythic sources and the Celts. The paper includes various legends that explain the migration of Celts to Ireland, including their rich oral and musical tradition. The paper also incorporates the domination of the Gaelic identity in Ireland.

From the Paper
"Ireland has been formally identified with Celts since the ?th century though Celts influenced Irish history before then. Julius Caesar's commentaries divide Gaul, not the British Isles into three ethnic regions, by no means culturally or linguistically identical; Celtae, Aquitani and Belgae Rankin, placing them on the Continent. Early Irish mythic sources, partly taking their cue from classical descriptions of the Celts as Scoti, identified themselves with Scythians who flourished in ancient Asia Minor."

Tags:Ireland, Gaels, Celts, Myth

Abstract
This paper looks at the ancient religion of Druidry, providing an account of its history, its rebirth, and beliefs. The paper also explains that there is a distinction between the concept of the Druid in pre-modern times and those who claim to be Druids today.

From the Paper
''Even at a definitional level, the Druidry of the modern day proves difficult to accurately describe due to its changing nature to fit modern times and diverse practices. Much of modern Druidry has been recreated from what people think the ancient religion of the Druids looked like and then adapted to try and fit a modern world. Phillip Carr-Gomm, the current leader of The Order of Bards Ovates and Druids, writes to express this view by starting ``a spiritual tradition should not be treated like a fossil- if it is to be of value it needs to grow and evolve, and adapt to the needs of the people and of a world that is constantly changing''. However, there seems to be a distinction between the concept of the Druid in pre-modern times and those who claim to be Druids this day.''

Tags:religion, Pagan, history

Abstract
The paper relates that analyzing German, Celt, and Anglo Saxon law during the early and late Iron Age in Europe indicates their significance in these cultures and demonstrates how the law played an active role in cultural processes and interactions between people. The paper discusses historical evidence that indicates that these law codes differed in various ways, but also indicates that they were similar, primarily because Iron Age cultures and societies in Europe confronted similar challenges in maintaining social order, in punishing offenses without generating social conflict and disunity, and in equitably resolving disputes.

From the Paper
"Analyzing German, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon law during the early and late Iron Age in Europe indicates the significance of the law in these cultures and demonstrates how it played an active role in cultural processes and interactions between people. Historical evidence indicates that these law codes differed in various ways, but also indicates that they were similar, primarily because Iron Age cultures and societies in Europe confronted similar challenges in maintaining social order, in punishing offenses..."

Tags:celtic, german, law

Abstract
This paper explains that, on first reading, early medieval English poetry seems so deadly serious but, by look at some of the exaggeration in this poetry, even "Beowulf" and the "Wanderer" could be considered funny. The author points out that the bards of the Celts and Druids had a tradition of humor in which musicians and storytellers poked fun at people and situations. The paper relates in detail examples of humor in each poem such as "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", which the paper states is "a positively outrageous story".

From the Paper
"When the reader gets into the poem ["Beowulf"] itself, it seems the ideas are ponderous and so is the language. How men who spent all night drinking could continuously be, or at least be portrayed, in such pompous, overblown terms, doesn't make sense. Mead is a powerfully alcoholic drink and ale is what it is. How could these men drink themselves to sleep every night and still function at all? Is it just the modern mindset that is so foreign to this kind of writing or is the sense of someone poking fun at this "warrior class" that apparently thought very highly of itself and its values, an accurate perception? The rigid, almost comically so, codes of honor the peoples of this poem lived by almost defy logic. The aggrandizement of people whose best skills are killing other people leaves something to be desired."

Tags:exaggeration, codes, poking, celts, christian

Abstract
This paper examines how the Celtic culture is one of Europe's oldest, surviving for thousands of years through several foreign invasions and through settlement in some of Europe's most inhospitable regions. It looks at how even today, Celtic culture thrives in pockets of Wales, Scotland and Ireland, where people continue to speak Celtic-based languages such as Gaelic and Welsh, and honor the free-spirited warrior history of the Celts. Because of the longevity of the Celtic culture, this paper attempts to determine whether it can be considered the most influential culture in European history.

Outline:
The Influence of the Celts
Arguments Against the Celts
The Celts Were not Europe's Most Influential Culture

From the Paper
"There is an argument to be made that the Celts are one of the most resilient cultures in European history. Celtic history stretches back as far as 1,200 B.C., and the Celts, who were essentially a group of loosely affiliated tribes who spoke similar languages and practiced similar customs, once saw their territory stretch from the rocky Atlantic cliffs of Ireland and England to the Black Sea in Eastern Europe (O'Neill). It was a territory one might more readily associate with the Roman Empire, which certainly had a significant influence over European history and development. "

Tags:Christianity, wales, scotland, ireland, warrior

Abstract
This paper presents an overview of ancient Celtic culture, focusing on their religion and the role of the fertility god known as Bres. First, the paper describes the Celts, where they lived and their way of life which centered on agriculture and war. The paper then related the story of Bres as a major god who was virile and connected with fertility. Additionally, the paper points out the mythological lore surrounding the life of Bres, and particularly his relationship with Brigid his wife and its importance and influence on many other Celtic/Irish myths. The paper concludes by stating that Bres, and his wife Brigid, were very powerful fertility deities at a time in the ancient past when Ireland was devoid of fertile ground for planting crops.

From the Paper
"Exactly how Bres became the king of the Tuatha De Danann is not clear, but according to prevailing Celtic/Irish mythology, a former king known as Nuada "lost his hand in the first Battle of Magh Tuireadh" (Lindemans, Internet) and was quickly deemed as unfit to rule as king, one reason being his addiction to hard drink. Although Bres' father Elatha was the ruler of the Fomorians, there appears to have been some kind of tension between the Fomorians and the Tuatha De Danann; nonetheless, in an act of "reconciliation, the Tuatha De decided to name Bres as their king" and allowed him to marry Brigid, one of the most important fertility goddesses in Celtic/Irish mythology and folklore (Lindemans, Internet).
"As previously mentioned, Bres turned out to be a very brutal and untrustworthy king for his people. As a ruler, Bres was "tyrannical. . . raised taxes to a near unbearable level" (Lindemans, Internet) and forced many of the Tuatha De Danann to be his personal slaves, "working in his house as unpaid laborers and in the fields from sun-up to sundown" "

Tags:ancient Ireland, warrior gods, Tuatha De Danann, Irish mythology

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that by ignoring specific religious holidays during the month of December, the idea of celebrating the winter solstice- the shortest day of the year- has become more and more popular. The writer discusses that it is based on old traditions which surely were practiced before the birth of Christ. There is evidence that the Greeks and Romans and ancient Celts had feasts and holidays around this same time. Today it has become a non-denominational celebration of nature.

From the Paper
"Other than the vocal few who want to put the "Christ" back into Christmas, there are an increasing number of either non- or co-religionists who believe that the time of the beginning of the winter season in December is worth a celebration apart from anything religious. Perhaps it is that winter provides a need for some sort of celebration. And perhaps it is the fact that there are a number of religions who have holy days in the month of December that has prompted some to suggest that Yule solstice celebrations be based on the position of the globe rather than three wise men following a star or tar or Jewish ..."

Tags:yule, solstice, nature

Abstract
This paper takes a look at the Druids who existed during the Anglo Saxon period when Britain was inhabited by a group of people called the Celts. The paper explains that the Celtic tribes were headed by a king and were divided by class into Druids, warrior nobles and commoners. The paper also tells us that the Druids were the priests and ministers of religion and that the Druids had an abundance of power and were highly respected by society. The paper discusses who the Druids were, what were their duties and functions and their beliefs. According to the paper, the Druids were contributors to the weakness of the Celtic society and their eventual downfall.

From the Paper
"During a period of time known as the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was inhabited by a group of people known as the Celts. Common speech, customs, and religion united the various Celtic tribes. Each tribe was headed by a king and was divided by class into Druids, warrior nobles, and commoners. The Druids were priests and ministers of religion. The Druids had an abundance of power and were held in high respect by the Celtic society, often-taking precedence even of the kings. The Druids even supervised all public and private disputes, issuing punishments and rewards. The influence of the Druids had a great cultural impact upon Celtic society."

Tags:Celtic, society, priests, ministers, of, religion, education

Abstract
This in-depth paper details the rituals, literature, importance of mythology and rich history surrounding the ancient Celtic nature worshipping religion of Wicca (witchcraft). The Celts were pantheistic, meaning they saw the spirit world in all things and believed herbs, trees, animals and rocks represented different aspects of their gods and goddesses. A common Wiccan belief is that all gods are one God, all goddesses are one Goddess and both are united. This paper compares Wicca to Catholicism and explains which Celtic holidays and traditions were adopted by the Catholic church, albeit many of the reasons for this have since been forgotten. This paper discusses how Pagan followers are once again using the ancient Wiccan holidays and rituals as a means to renew their connection to the Mother Goddess in all Her forms, in a religion which views all things equally.

Table of Contents:
Patterns of Ritual
The Metaphor
The Sacrificial God
The Twin Gods
The Sabbats
Yule
Vernal Equinox
References

From the Paper
"Most Wiccans also follow the eight sabbats of the year. These are the Wiccan holidays, marking the points of the greatest solar and lunar energy. The four greater sabbats mark the lunar peaks while the four lesser sabbats mark the solar peaks. During these festivals, sacred rites, blessings and divinations were performed. The sacred rites included fertility rites, engagements and marriages (trial marriages and handfastings), rites of passage and simulated deaths. Magical items and altars were blessed, as well as people, animals, homes, cities, fields and seeds. Divinations were done through scryes (reflective objects), fire, water or visions (dreams and meditations). Each holiday had its specific rites, blessing and divinations. Today, Wiccans still adhere to the specific ideas of the ancient holidays."

Tags:religion, pagan, literature, poetry, nature, belief, witches, witchcraft

Abstract
This paper explains that Christian art, evolving along with the church, began in the Near East, which was a vast religious and cultural melting pot where all the competing faiths, including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and many others, tended to influence each other. The author points out that the oldest sizable and coherent body of Christian art, which can be traced to no earlier than 200 AD, is the painted murals in the Roman catacombs and the underground burial places of the Christians. The paper relates that the halo around Jesus' head stems from pagan artists, who used a halo, usually of a gold color, to mark the chief of men and women in their pictures, and from the Romans, who associated it with the cult of light as a special gift from God. Chart. List of illustrations but no illustrations.

Table of Contents
The Early Christian Church - The Jews and the Greeks
Byzantine Art
The Christian Empire
Nuns, Monks, and Priests
Saints and Martyrs
The Virgin Mary
The Halo
The Conversion of the Northern Tribes
The Celts
The English
The Saxons
The Holy Roman Emperor
East Rome
Church of St. Sophia
The Icons, the Iconostasis, and Iconoclasm
Icons
Iconostasis
Iconoclasm
The Mystics
The Effect of Islam
A Comparison of Christianity East and West
Early Christian vs. Byzantine Art
Western Society in the Middle Ages
Popes
Society and Religion
Hell and Purgatory
Gothic Cathedrals and Stain Glass Windows
The Renaissance
Exploration
The Reformation
The Modern Age

From the Paper
"The first celibates in the early Christian church were women who lived lives of chastity and cleaned church buildings. These women also helped tend the sick. Many spiritually oriented celibate males started as hermits but eventually these men grouped together, elected an abbot, and agreed to abide by a set of rules. These first nuns and monks were called Benedictines. Priests were allowed to marry in the early church but the idea of a celibate priesthood was raised as early as 324 AD (Council of Nicene) but this was unenforceable. In the early church, a man could marry before he became a priest and still become a priest. He could not marry if he became a priest before marrying. The ideal of the totally celibate priesthood was not enforceable until the 11th Century. A man who wanted to become a bishop was not allowed to be married.
In the Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church, priests still are allowed to marry before taking final vows."

Tags:halo, icon, moon-goddess, mosaics, byzantine