Abstract
This epidemiological paper represents a brief discussion on the web of causation. Definitions of epidemiology, causation and association are provided, as is a historical retrospective of how the web of causation developed. Model concepts are compared as is their relevance to community health, citing female health issues, coronary heart disease and commenting on "Healthy People 2000." The paper concludes with the web of causation as it relates to nursing practice. The paper cites current literature.

From the Paper
"Epidemiology is a unique area of healthcare study in that it does not diagnose. Epidemiology represents the integration between social and natural sciences, but unlike many disciplines places greater emphasis on biological implications for population based findings (Vinels, 2003). This paper will discuss epidemiological implications in light of the web of causation model. After an initial review of relevant definitions, the web of causation conceptual model will be reviewed from an historical perspective. Components of the model will be defined along with a discussion of how this model applies to community health. Finally, the relevance the web of causation holds for nursing will conclude the paper. As appropriate for any technical discussion, definitions of key terms are provided."

Tags:epidemiology, nursing, causation

Abstract
Mental Causation is one of the central problems in the philosophy of mind concerned with the causal role of the mind in the physical world. Traditionally, the problem of mental causation has been that of understanding how a mental substance, thought to be immaterial, could interact with the body, a physical substance. Many philosophers today reject substantival, immaterial minds, but the problem of mental causation has not gone away. This paper explores the problem of Causal Exclusion as the main problem of mental causation that arises from the nonreductive materialist framework.

From the Paper
"Another preliminary remark is that there are, in fact, several different problems of mental causation instead of a single problem. One much discussed problem concerns Davidson's Anomalous monism (according to which, there are no strict causal laws about psychological phenomena such that no "mental to mental" or "mental to physical" laws can be formulated): If there are no strict laws connecting mental states to physical states, how can mental states be causally relevant? Another much discussed problem concerns specifically the externalist views of the mind according to which mental states cannot be identified only with reference to the states in the head. If mental states depend on factors outside the head, i.e. extrinsic properties, how can they affect behavior? In Kim's words: "How can extrinsic, relational properties be causally efficacious in behavior production?" (Chalmers, 173)"

Tags:dualism, physicalism, Descartes

Abstract
This paper begins by exploring different theories of mind, including dualism, reductivism, and nonreductive physicalism. It then summarizes the mental causation problem as expressed by Jaegwon Kim. Thereafter, the paper puts forth the argument that nonreductive physicalism gives rise to the very problem of mental causation that physicalism was intended to solve in the first place. The paper explores the contemporary nonreductivist difficulties related to mental causation, and the standard solution that nonreductivists have proposed to overcome these difficulties.

Table of Contents:
Dualism vs. Physicalism
Nonreductivism and Physical Realization
The Problem of Mental Causation
The Assumptions and Kim's Causal Exclusion Argument
The Causal Exclusion Argument and the Nonreductivist Responses
Conclusion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"To sum up everything so far, Descartes' difficulties in explaining the notion of mental causation arose from his ontological definitions of the mental and the physical: the duality of mental and material substances. And, it seems that the current mainstream physicalism, the "non-reductive physicalism", runs into parallel difficulties on account of its commitments to the duality of mental and physical properties. Non-reductive physicalism argues that mental states are not identical with particular physical states. Then, the problem for this position is: are the mental properties responsible for their effects in the physical world? This raises a dilemma: if the mental properties are responsible for the effects, then either the causal closure of the physical domain is violated or the effects are overdetermined. And, neither of these is acceptable to non-reductive physicalists. On the other hand, if the mental properties of the cause are not responsible for its effects, then epiphenomalism is true: the mental makes no causal difference."

Tags:body, materialism, supervenience

Abstract
This paper examines the issues of causation and remoteness in a tort of negligence claim. It provides a case study of a man who offers to fly a group to Disneyland in a private jet and breaches his duty of care when he drinks some alcohol in an effort to calm his nerves. The paper discusses the details of the case from a legal perspective and discusses the issues that arise.

From the Paper
"As it is unclear whether her arm could have been saved had Rachel been sent to see the consultant earlier we cannot apply the "but for" test. The delay in treatment may have reduced Rachel's chance of a full recovery; however, for such an argument to succeed it needs to be proved on the balance of probabilities to at least 51%. If a loss chance was recognised by Abby's failure to recognise the injury in time to treat it, then Abby would be liable. In the case of Hotson v East Berkshire Area Health Authority it was discovered that if the 13 year old boy who fell from a tree, was correctly diagnosed sooner he would have had a 25% of making a full recovery, but the delay in treatment meant that he lost this 25% chance and suffered avascular necrosis. However, it was held in the House of Lords that this 25% loss of chance does not prove the case to the necessary balance of probabilities that a civil action must be found. The Court of Appeal's 'quantification' of damages was wrong, as the obstacle of causation had not been overcome. In this scenario therefore, for Abby to be considered liable, it would need to be proved that had Rachel's injury been discovered sooner she would have had a 51% chance or more of making a full recovery."

Tags:duty of care, breach, responsibility

Abstract
This paper describes the criminal activities and background of Albert Fish, self-confessed molester of more than 400 children during a 20 year duration. It discusses the various theoretical schools of crime causation (biological, psychological and sociological) and attempts to use them to explain Fish's criminal behavior.

From the Paper
"To discover what makes a serial killer function, it is necessary to look at their past, particularly their teenage years. Studies have shown that almost all serial killers come from dysfunctional backgrounds involving sexual or physical abuse, drugs or alcoholism and their related problems. Some traits of a serial killer include a feeling of resentment towards society, sexual frustrations the inability to be social and a wild imagination that drags them into a fantasy world. The three most frequently reported behaviors included day dreaming, compulsive masturbation and isolation. (uplink.com) Daydreaming, which happens due to an over active imagination, leads the way into the general fantasy world that the serial killer being to live in to protect himself with the isolation is faced with. "

Tags:serial, killer, rape

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses the background and criminal activities of Jeffrey Dahmer. The writer then discusses various criminological theories that might explain his behavior.

From the Paper
"Even as a child Dahmer had necrophilia impulses collected dead animals and impaled the heads of animals he killed on stakes in his yard. Abandoned by his mother after having been molested by a neighbor Dahmer's childhood was one of rejection and feelings of loss. He lived with his father and stepmother and was abandoned again by these parents after he graduated from high school. He killed his ..."

Tags:Jeffrey Dahmer, serial killers, criminological theory

Abstract
This paper discusses fragile X syndrome, the specific collection of often quite diverse physical, behavioral and mental afflictions that are caused by a specific gene change. The paper discusses the range of symptoms and concerns regarding the transmission of the syndrome as well as the controversy over attempting to identify carriers of the syndrome.

From the Paper
"Medical ethicists like Dorothy Nelkin oppose such programs, even with the parent's consent, arguing that the school system should treat the symptoms of the syndrome, if it is present--in short, an autistic-like Fragile X sufferer should be treated in the same method as a child with autism with another cause, just as a Fragile X sufferer experiencing difficulty reading should receive resource room help. The argument is that because the level of impairment is so varied, a relatively mildly impaired child could be unfairly tarnished with the label of hopelessly unable to learn because of a genetic defect. Of course, the issue of genetic testing is, invariably a thorny one, as is the danger of identifying a child with a mild case as 'marked' may do more harm than good, and stigmatize him or her for life. Nelkin even argues that there is a danger that "a false diagnosis of Fragile-X could stigmatize a child as potentially disabled" wrongfully (Nelkin 1996: 540). However, there is no denying that this disease is genetic, and an unidentified individual could pass on the trait to his or her offspring."

Tags:DNA, impairment, carrier, defect

Abstract
As a skeptic, David Hume argued against taking for granted cause and effect relationships as well as induction. The paper points out the reliance of the physical sciences on induction and Hume's philosophical separation of cause from effect, as well as the importance of the necessity relation and concludes that, although hard to stomach, Hume's skepticism is a necessary component of our philosophical explorations.

Abstract
This paper describes the feelings that characterize depression, the two main types of depression, its causes and how it is diagnosed. The writer explains that since there is still debate over what causes depression, there are many different kinds of drugs used in treating it, as well as different types of psychotherapy, and more extreme treatments like psychosurgery and electroconvulsive shock therapy. The writer concludes that no single treatment has been found to be more effective than another, and the only constant is that the interaction between the client and psychologist provides support, hope, and motivation to change.

From the Paper
"Another perspective that could explain the cause of depression could be how the person cognitively interprets the stressful situation itself. There are many people who experience stressful situations, so why are there only a few who become clinically depressed? One way psychologists look at depressive thinking patterns is the hopelessness theory, where people believe "depression results from a pattern of thinking about negative experiences that reduces or eliminates any hope that life will get better" (Gray, 2001, 629). These individuals believe that these stressful experiences are stable and global, meaning they believe that nothing they do can change the situations. If someone fails a test, they may attribute this failure to their personal abilities and believe that they will only continue to fail."

Tags:socio-cultural, maladaptive, diagnosis, serotonin, neurotransmitter, personality, psychoanalysis, strategy, brain

Abstract
This essay will analyze the history of the IQ-Race controversy with a view to questioning both the function of IQ as a predictive factor, and the validity of associations between IQ scores and racial origins. It will be argued that, from a layman's perspective, the sheer number of uncontrolled variables in such associations seem to undermine the theory that IQ is closely associated with race. Thus, general correlations between IQ scores and racial origins do not signify a causal relationship between the two.