Abstract This epidemiological paper represents a brief discussion on the web of causation. Definitions of epidemiology, causation and association are provided, as is a historical retrospective of how the web of causation developed. Model concepts are compared as is their relevance to community health, citing female health issues, coronary heart disease and commenting on "Healthy People 2000." The paper concludes with the web of causation as it relates to nursing practice. The paper cites current literature.
From the Paper "Epidemiology is a unique area of healthcare study in that it does not diagnose. Epidemiology represents the integration between social and natural sciences, but unlike many disciplines places greater emphasis on biological implications for population based findings (Vinels, 2003). This paper will discuss epidemiological implications in light of the web of causation model. After an initial review of relevant definitions, the web of causation conceptual model will be reviewed from an historical perspective. Components of the model will be defined along with a discussion of how this model applies to community health. Finally, the relevance the web of causation holds for nursing will conclude the paper. As appropriate for any technical discussion, definitions of key terms are provided."
A philosophy paper, which argues that nonreductive physicalism gives rise to the very problem of mental causation that physicalism was intended to solve in the first place.
Abstract This paper begins by exploring different theories of mind, including dualism, reductivism, and nonreductive physicalism. It then summarizes the mental causation problem as expressed by Jaegwon Kim. Thereafter, the paper puts forth the argument that nonreductive physicalism gives rise to the very problem of mental causation that physicalism was intended to solve in the first place. The paper explores the contemporary nonreductivist difficulties related to mental causation, and the standard solution that nonreductivists have proposed to overcome these difficulties.
Table of Contents:
Dualism vs. Physicalism
Nonreductivism and Physical Realization
The Problem of Mental Causation The Assumptions and Kim's Causal Exclusion Argument
The Causal Exclusion Argument and the Nonreductivist Responses
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "To sum up everything so far, Descartes? difficulties in explaining the notion of mental causation arose from his ontological definitions of the mental and the physical: the duality of mental and material substances. And, it seems that the current mainstream physicalism, the "non-reductive physicalism", runs into parallel difficulties on account of its commitments to the duality of mental and physical properties. Non-reductive physicalism argues that mental states are not identical with particular physical states. Then, the problem for this position is: are the mental properties responsible for their effects in the physical world? This raises a dilemma: if the mental properties are responsible for the effects, then either the causal closure of the physical domain is violated or the effects are overdetermined. And, neither of these is acceptable to non-reductive physicalists. On the other hand, if the mental properties of the cause are not responsible for its effects, then epiphenomalism is true: the mental makes no causal difference."
Abstract Mental Causation is one of the central problems in the philosophy of mind concerned with the causal role of the mind in the physical world. Traditionally, the problem of mental causation has been that of understanding how a mental substance, thought to be immaterial, could interact with the body, a physical substance. Many philosophers today reject substantival, immaterial minds, but the problem of mental causation has not gone away. This paper explores the problem of Causal Exclusion as the main problem of mental causation that arises from the nonreductive materialist framework.
From the Paper "Another preliminary remark is that there are, in fact, several different problems of mental causation instead of a single problem. One much discussed problem concerns Davidson's Anomalous monism (according to which, there are no strict causal laws about psychological phenomena such that no "mental to mental" or "mental to physical" laws can be formulated): If there are no strict laws connecting mental states to physical states, how can mental states be causally relevant? Another much discussed problem concerns specifically the externalist views of the mind according to which mental states cannot be identified only with reference to the states in the head. If mental states depend on factors outside the head, i.e. extrinsic properties, how can they affect behavior? In Kim's words: "How can extrinsic, relational properties be causally efficacious in behavior production"? (Chalmers, 173)"
The Mind-Body Type Identity Theory is addressed in terms of the three essential components that any philosophical theory must address - consciousness, intentionality and mental causation.
Abstract This paper explains that in order to break through the mind-body problematic cycle, we can adapt, with modern day revisions, David Hume's theory of Compatibilism. It shows how free will and determinism are interdependent and not at odds as previously believed. The concepts of consciousness, intentionality and mental causation are discussed in terms of Hume's theory.
From the Paper "In discussing what makes a good theory relating the mind and body, it is clear that three things needed to be explained. (1) How consciousness occurs, (2) how intentionality occurs, and (3) how mental causation occurs. So far in the journey through theories, the most severe (in terms of consequences) is the Mind-Body Type Identity Theory, which states all mental properties are identical to brain properties. When I first deliberated over the Mind-Body Type Identity Theory and all that it entails and presupposes (such as the rejection of multiple realization) it challenges our "common sense" which tells us that there must be something different about mental and physical events. This idea is based on the fact that we make a distinction in our language between the two. We label certain snacks as "brain food" not "mind food" perhaps because food and the brain are both tangible physical entities. We don?t ask people to "change their brain" when we present a contrary idea, instead we except people to "change their mind" assuming that we are able to control the nature of this non-physical representation, while preserving the integrity of the physical glob of neurons inside our skull. If we knew them to be the same thing, a priori or empirical, wouldn"t we feel compelled to change the idioms and analogies and other forms of language we use to distinguish the two""
Abstract This paper describes the criminal activities and background of Albert Fish, self-confessed molester of more than 400 children during a 20 year duration. It discusses the various theoretical schools of crime causation (biological, psychological and sociological) and attempts to use them to explain Fish's criminal behavior.
From the Paper "To discover what makes a serial killer function, it is necessary to look at their past, particularly their teenage years. Studies have shown that almost all serial killers come from dysfunctional backgrounds involving sexual or physical abuse, drugs or alcoholism and their related problems. Some traits of a serial killer include a feeling of resentment towards society, sexual frustrations the inability to be social and a wild imagination that drags them into a fantasy world. The three most frequently reported behaviors included day dreaming, compulsive masturbation and isolation. (uplink.com) Daydreaming, which happens due to an over active imagination, leads the way into the general fantasy world that the serial killer being to live in to protect himself with the isolation is faced with. "
Abstract This paper examines the issues of causation and remoteness in a tort of negligence claim. It provides a case study of a man who offers to fly a group to Disneyland in a private jet and breaches his duty of care when he drinks some alcohol in an effort to calm his nerves. The paper discusses the details of the case from a legal perspective and discusses the issues that arise.
From the Paper "As it is unclear whether her arm could have been saved had Rachel been sent to see the consultant earlier we cannot apply the "but for" test. The delay in treatment may have reduced Rachel's chance of a full recovery; however, for such an argument to succeed it needs to be proved on the balance of probabilities to at least 51%. If a loss chance was recognised by Abby's failure to recognise the injury in time to treat it, then Abby would be liable. In the case of Hotson v East Berkshire Area Health Authority it was discovered that if the 13 year old boy who fell from a tree, was correctly diagnosed sooner he would have had a 25% of making a full recovery, but the delay in treatment meant that he lost this 25% chance and suffered avascular necrosis. However, it was held in the House of Lords that this 25% loss of chance does not prove the case to the necessary balance of probabilities that a civil action must be found. The Court of Appeal's 'quantification' of damages was wrong, as the obstacle of causation had not been overcome. In this scenario therefore, for Abby to be considered liable, it would need to be proved that had Rachel's injury been discovered sooner she would have had a 51% chance or more of making a full recovery."
Abstract This paper uses the Reason Model of Accident Causation to analyse the events following the Qantas accident in Bangkok in 1999. The issues relating to the crew's actions in the minutes prior to the precautionary disembarkation are investigated. The paper makes specific reference to the functions of organisational defences as described by Professor James Reason and stresses the significance of his accident causation model in aviation. It continues by suggesting the use of the accident causation model is not exclusive to accident investigation, but also using the concept as an error management tool to improve organisational safety performance. Recommendations are made for managers to implement a Safety Management System considering organisational defences and providing sufficient training to minimise active failures.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction and Background
Functions of Defences and Accident Causation Case Study: The QF1 Accident
Using the Reason Model in Practice
Conclusion and Implications
From the Paper "The investigation report (ATSB, 2001) into the accident thoroughly details the events of the approach, landing and disembarkation. As the Boeing 747 attempted to land in extremely heavy rain, inaccurate aircraft handling by the first officer (pilot flying) led to the aircraft floating much further along the runway than planned. As the captain of the flight realised this he instructed the pilot flying to apply full power in an attempt to go-around. Almost simultaneously the aircraft's main wheels touched down on the runway. As a consequence, the captain rejected the go-around by retarding the thrust levers, but without specifying this to the first officer. Subsequently, confusion in the cockpit between the first officer and captain resulted in reverse thrust not being applied at any stage during the landing roll."
Abstract This paper discusses the web of causation and how it is related to health care. It further discusses the concepts of the web of causation model and the elements involved in developing a problematic approach to issues through the use of the web of causation. The paper then takes a look at how the web of causation can be applied to nursing when it is in relation to the elderly at risk for falling.
From the Paper " The web of causation is a scientific tool used to study all elements contributing to a specific event or illness in order to develop an approach toward a resolution to the problem. As Parascandola and Weed (2001) explain, "the web is not intended^ to be a theory or to provide causal explanations, but merely to act as a metaphor for the idea that causal pathways are complex and interconnected" (p. 905). The model was developed so that every facet of a concern could be studied to provide the most effective treatment, resolution, or approach to a variety of nursing situations. To fully comprehend factors related to an issue the problem must first be identified, as well as those elements of the problem directly related to the problem, and elements indirectly related to the problem."
Abstract This paper examines the case of the manager of ABC Apartments misusing the key to one of their apartments by raping a tenant after using a spare key to enter her apartment. The paper describes the facts of the case and looks at landlord-tenant liability and duty of care. The paper then examines causation and the basis of ABC Apartment's liability in the case.
Table of Contents:
Facts
Duty of Care
Causation Identifying the Basis of ABC Apartment's Liability
From the Paper "Ordinarily, vicarious liability of employers is predicated on the common law principle of respondeat superior, pursuant to which employers are responsible for harms caused by their employees by virtue of the employer's failure to properly supervise or train them (Halbert & Ingulli 2000). In addition, many states have established precedents imposing an affirmative duty on the part of employers to safeguard their employees, tenants, and the general public from criminal conduct perpetrated by their employees. Minnesota, in particular, has dealt with the same factual circumstances raised by the ABC Apartment case; California and several other states have specific statutes defining additional liability for negligence in hiring and in the retention of employees who are unfit or otherwise unsuitable for their positions. (Feliu & Johnson 2002)."
Abstract As a skeptic, David Hume argued against taking for granted cause and effect relationships as well as induction. The paper points out the reliance of the physical sciences on induction and Hume's philosophical separation of cause from effect, as well as the importance of the necessity relation and concludes that, although hard to stomach, Hume's skepticism is a necessary component of our philosophical explorations.
Abstract This paper evaluates Robert Monk's book "Exploring Religious Meaning" as being a succinct appraisal of how other religions assess suffering, glossing over most philosophical or religious thought prior to 300 B.C., totally ignoring the majority of the eastern religions and jumping immediately to Christianity to illustrate his world-view of suffering. The author points out that Monk writes that many Christians who struggle with the logical problem of how evil can exist when everything has been created by a good and all powerful God, have accepted the position that evil comes from a real but inferior source of power created by God. The paper concludes that the greatest philosophers and theologians from every culture, religion and belief system cannot agree on the causation or the meaning of the concepts of good and evil.
From the Paper "The earliest animistic religions (prehistory or ancient history) had a theology based on the movement of the sun, the moon and the planets. Early Norse, Greek and Roman, Mid Eastern (Babylon, Mesopotamia and Chaldea) as well as Egyptian and the Celtic and Druidic religions of the British Isles based their beliefs on their observations of the passing of the seasons and the movement of the lights. Human characteristics with super human powers were projected on these celestial beings. Thus were formed the earliest pantheons of gods and goddesses. Because these godlets were more human than godlike in character, they were portrayed as either indifferent (as privileged humans are often indifferent to those of the lower classes), or malicious (demonstrating how the worst of human behavior is magnified when given godlike powers.) In either case, the people who worshipped them felt they had to propitiate these gods with various sacrifices in order to beg them to end various personal or universal disasters or to grant them luck in day to day living."
Abstract Rape has a number of definitions and traditionally rape is defined as the forced, non consensual, penetrative vaginal sex. This paper aims to discuss the causation behind this cruel and obscene violation to a person's self, using the most popular theory of rape; the social learning theory. It begins with a generalisation of the theory with reference to Bandura, of which the theory is based upon followed by an explanation of how this theory relates to and provides a cause for the unlawful act.
The main theme throughout is pornography and how this may or may not have a direct effect upon people, particularly men who rape. It also discusses the impact of culture, society, aggression theories and feminism.
From the Paper "The social learning theory is a general theory of human behaviour, a variant of Behaviourism which looks at the way in which certain behaviour is acquired. Social learning theory, however, pays greater attention to the concept of human development and moreover recognises substantially the role of social reinforcements in explaining how these behaviours are learned. The basic proposition is that the same learning process in a context of social structure, situation and interaction, generates both conforming and deviant behaviour."
Abstract This paper explores the classical theory of crime causation, one of the major theoretical perspectives in the field. The paper begins by describing Cesare Beccaria who is generally seen as the founder of this theory. Several of his influences are evaluated, including ideas regarding the nature of punishment which are central to his theory. The paper evaluates the classical theory in light of modern criminology. A chart entitled 'Comparison of Classical and Positivist Schools' is included.
Outline:
Introduction
Man Pleads Guilty
Classical Causes
Vital Components
Foundation and Focus
Causes Contributing to Frank's Crimes?
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The Classical Theory, one of the major theoretical perspectives of crime causation, will not fully explain Frank's criminal behavior. This theory may, however, shed a bit of light on the underlying factors contributing to his dark deeds. "Cesare Beccaria - 'the Rousseau of the Italians' (Beirne, 1993:14) - is generally seen, at least symbolically, as the founder of this movement." (Carrabine, Iganski, Lee, Plummer & South, 2004, p. 32 - 33) Beccaria, a humanist born in Milan, Italy in 1738, feverishly worked for the eradication of injustice and illogicality of the judicial system prior to and continuing into his day."
Abstract This paper covers Jeffrey Dahmer's life before he became a well-known serial killer. The paper tracks him through childhood, young adulthood and finally into his killing spree. The paper takes a look at the why, how and aftermath of his crimes and includes Dahmer's own thoughts regarding his crimes.
From the Paper "He was discharged from the Army due to increased alcohol abuse. There are no indications that he killed anyone while in the Army. This could be due to the Army's zero tolerance policy of homosexuals and Dahmer's preference for homosexual male victims."
"After his discharge from the Army, Dahmer moved in with his father and stepmother in Ohio. He began drinking to excess and was arrested several times for drunk and disorderly. He also showed up at his home after he had been fighting and was in fact hurt badly on several occasions. It was at this point that his father decided that moving Jeffrey to his grandmothers house in West Allis, Wisconsin would be the best thing for him."
Abstract This paper discusses David Hume's attack on rationalism in discussing the nature of causation and his promotion of the idea of empiricism. It discusses how Hume showed that expecting an effect to occur as a result of a cause was based solely on experience - the basis of empiricism and not on logic - the basis of rationalism. The paper also shows how Hume proved that rationalism alone could not discover cause and effect, but neither could it rationally exist.
From the Paper "Hume argues that there is no proof of the necessary connection between cause and effect, as these are, as he concluded, empirical notions. Because empiricism does not rationally prove anything, but only suggest a strong likelihood of truth, cause cannot be rationally connected to effect, but only be conjoined to each other. However, due to the nature of empiricism, Hume argues that the connection can still exist, as it is perceived by the mind to exist. Therefore, we can only imagine cause and effect, but only in the mind. This means that cause and effect can only exist in the mind of the empiricist, who takes knowledge from experience without rational or scientific proof; yet ironically, it is scientific proofs which depend on observations from experience. Once more, the empiricist draws attention to the follies of pure rationalism."
