Abstract Transcendental idealism is founded on the concept of the a priori. Few claims in philosophical history have encouraged as wide and vigourous a debate as this one idea. The a priori nature of causality has been the most cited example, and this paper takes a view of the playing field. Not only is Kant's theory of causality explained with care, but the paper also investigates how Kant stands in reference to traditional ("dogmatic") metaphysics, notably that of Leibniz and also to his powerful contempary, David Hume; with whom Kant had one eye on when writing "The Critique".
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" is largely a response to popular philosophy of the time. This is true of Leibniz (and Wolff?s) "dogmatic metaphysics", but also true of the psychological approach of the British empiricists. The most resolute of these, in Kant's mind, was David Hume, and Kant's response to Hume's treatment of causality is worthy of further examination."
Abstract This paper discusses causal determines. Causality, the relation between two items one of which causes the other, is often probabilistic. Causal determinism implies that something must have caused something else. The issue of right versus wrong would not occur if there was no wrongdoing. Three criteria to determine the right versus wrong dilemma are violation of law, departure from truth, and deviation from moral conduct. Ethical theories reflect on concepts of moral issues.
Abstract The paper examines David Hume's philosophy of causality that follows on from the empiricist philosophy. The paper discusses Hume's theory that people do not make judgments of how or why because causality does not exist. The paper explains the belief that only through the senses is information recorded, processed and inscribed upon our empty minds as a reaction to an aggregated association of thought. The paper stresses how empiricist philosophy denies the relevance of the person as a social, choosing being.
From the Paper "David Hume (1711-1776) was the last and perhaps most controversially influential of "the three most famous British Empiricists of the eighteenth century" [John Locke 1632-1704, and George Berkeley (1685-1753](Flage 1). Although Hume's ideas had great impact on Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, and Charles Darwin, the concept of empiricism can be traced back at least to Protagoras of Abdera, a fifth century Greek Sophist, who propounded the radical relativism that "Of all things the measure is man, of the things that are, that {or'how'] they are, and of things that [or 'how'] they are not" (Poster 4). Protagoras' taught that judgment of qualities, as abstractions like truth, are subjective, relative only to the individual observer. This, of course, is the basis of empiricism, the philosophy that all knowledge is derived from the experiences of the senses."
Abstract This paper provides a brief biographical section on David Hume before examining his theory on causality. The paper includes explanations of his notions of necessary connection, custom and habit, and the logical problems associated with causality.
From the Paper "Perhaps the most significant work ever accomplished by David Hume is his argument on causality. As an empiricist, Hume attempted to make clear the limits of reason in human understanding. Hume shows how the majority of human beliefs are gained not through innate reasoning as rationalists since Plato had claimed, but through the experiences of the senses."
Abstract This paper is a trans-relativistic analysis by the author to attempt at reconciling the paradoxical causality implications, ramifications and consequences of "Faster Than Light (FTL) Signaling". The author's key objective is to break the "institutionalist hold" over physics by the STL Guardianship. It is argued that there is a need for a "greater" relativity theory. This paper has several scientific diagrams and comes to many conclusions regarding these theories.
From the Paper "As "The Principle Of Causality" argues; our world (or universe) wouldn't make much sense if it were just a jumble of events leading nowhere and having no purpose. And our reality certainly proves that this is not the case. But now, physicists must deal with "a new reality": a broken Spacetime Speed Barrier (and possibly a paradigm shift). Even though skepticism about the "break-through-value" of this (Wang?s) research is the obvious first issue to be dealt with, the question I ask is this: what would be "the ramifications of the pinnacle break-through"; the realization of FTL signaling? This question radiates thru my consciousness: Does "FTL" data from Lijun Wang's research really give credence to the notion that information can jump forward in time? If not, time will tell (no pun intended). But if so, this would suggest that The Theory Of Relativity needs to be "re-thought and reworked" for it to be reconciled with "a new tenet of 21st Century Physics": Superluminal Spacetime Physics. This focused omposite theoretic is my first attempt at speculative theoretical reconciliation of one aspect of the overall (FTL) issue: Paradoxical Trans-Relativistic Causality*."
Tags:causality, compression, ftl, relativity, space, superluminal, time
Abstract This paper gives an account of Kant's arguments in the three analogies of "The Critique of Pure Reason"-- causal relations, simultaneity and the holistic community. It concludes that his argument that everything interacts with everything else is essentially plausible.
From the Paper "In the third analogy Kant writes that the possibility of representing things as simultaneous requires these things to be represented as being in causal interaction with one another. He also writes, in the first analogy, that our apprehension of the world (the manifold of appearances) is successive and so it seems that we cannot apprehend any appearances as co-existent. If the appearances we apprehend were not ordered in time, and ordered in a way based upon the persistence of substance, we would end up with a 'play of representations' - a disordered jumble of appearances none of which are related to any other and each of which being apprehended randomly by the understanding, which has no principle by which to order its apprehension of the world any other way."
Abstract This paper is a causal argument showing how gambling causes debt, which leads to crime. The dynamic of gambling's effect on the gambler is explained, and statistics are cited showing the connection between gambling and crime.
From the Paper "Although many people view gambling as harmless fun the fact is that it becomes an addictive behavior for a large proportion of people People who are capable of gambling just for fun without becoming addicted find it hard to understand what can ..."
Abstract This paper discusses the main causal factors of the American Civil War. It specifically focuses on the role of slavery in developing antagonism between the northern and southern states, the fundamental issue of state sovereignty against the growing authority of the federal government and the very different life style and political and economic bases of life in the southern states as compared with those that shaped life in the North.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Role of Slavery as a Root Cause of The American Civil War
The Role of Federalism, Foreign Tariffs and the Western Territories
From the Paper "When Missouri requested ratification as an independent slaveholding state within the American Union in 1817, northern states fiercely opposed the recognition of a slave state so far north. Resolution came in the form of the Compromise of 1820, pursuant to which Missouri was recognized as a slave state but Maine as a free state, thereby maintaining the balance of representation in the senate. It was the first of a series of similar compromises intended to avoid outright conflict between the North and South over the underlying issue of slavery."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that anorexia nervosa is a mental disorder that is considered to be one of the most deadly among all psychiatric disorders and is one of the most costly to treat. In reviewing the literature, the writer points out that there are various hypotheses relating to a variety of both environmental and biological causes, but very few that bring together the various elements that seem to consistently be found in this mental disorder. The writer examines the various proposed causes that have been set forth and studied to date in the literature but maintains that, because studies in this field are correlational and usually only look at one possible factor at a time, it is difficult to determine whether this mental disorder has multiple causal mechanisms. The writer discusses that, if consistent patterns can be identified in relation to the development of this mental illness, it may be possible to identify children who are at risk of developing anorexia, successfully treat those who have it, and reverse the trend and, thus, save the lives of many people.
Outline:
The Definition of Anorexia Nervosa
Currently Published Prevalence Rates
Hereditability and Comorbidity
The Effects of the Thin Ideal and the Media
Anorexia with Athletes
Proposed Biological Causes
Personality Correlates of Anorexics
Attachment Patterns and the Development of Anorexia
Parental Dynamics Involved in the Development of Anorexia
Conclusion
From the Paper "What is unclear is whether the onset of the comorbid anxiety disorder causes and/or contributes to the onset of the anorexia or vice versa.
"As an aside, facts that are somewhat related to heritability have been consistently found in the behavior of mothers toward their infant daughters who eventually become anorexic. It is unclear whether these patterns of behavior are causally related to the development of anorexia or not, but it should be noted that there are circumstances that may be considered risk factors and should be taken into account when predicting outcomes.
"For example, anorexics are said to have mothers who relied on scheduled feeding patterns when they were babies and introduced solids prematurely into their child's diet."
Abstract This paper discusses statistical analysis as a dynamic form of study that evolves over time to meet developing needs and to exploit developing capabilities and technologies. The author points out that statistical analysis is the process through which data becomes knowledge and is a science to assist one in making decisions under conditions of uncertainty. The paper relates that the most appropriate logic bases for the discipline of statistical analysis in the contemporary period are rational, quantitative, positivist and causality.
Table of Contents
Introduction: Reflections on Statistics
Reviewing Statistical Analysis
Defining Statistical Analysis
Alternative Logic Bases for Statistical Analysis
Rational Model versus Naturalistic Model.
Quantitative Model versus Qualitative Model.
Positivist Model versus Normative Model.
Causality Model versus Plausibility Model
Exploratory Model versus Confirmatory Model.
Randomization Model.
Conclusion: Reviewing Statistical Analysis.
Examining the Classical Model of Statistical Analysis
Descriptive Statistical Analysis
Exploratory Statistical Analysis
Inferential Statistical Analysis
Probability Theory and Classical Statistical Analysis
Conclusion: Classical Statistical Analysis
From the Paper "Descriptive statistical analysis describes the performance or activity of one group or class, without attempting to generalize about other groups or classes. Classification, description, and measurement are activities applicable to variables associated with social research. The classification of variables is based on an assumption that social units are comparable within the context of specific definitional criteria. A social researcher attempts to control variation through the classification of variables. The description of variables is an effort to assign some degree of uniqueness to each variable, in order to provide a basis for the establishment of relationships among variables. The measurement of the extent of the uniqueness of variables generates the quantitative indicators of the strength of the relationships between variables. The process of classification, description, and measurement facilitates the development of causal explanations for both regularities and variations in empirical phenomena. Comparisons are made according to the degree of differentiation of structure in data in relation to a common and less differentiated point of origin. Such comparability is dependent upon both the classification of the social unit and the dimension of that social unit that is being measured. The dimension is the variable being measured."
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to discuss forecasting methods that are used in commercial business. Competition for consumers is high and in order for businesses to survive, they all have to consider what products are needed, where and when they are needed as well as in what quantities. It looks at how a successful forecasting strategy requires selecting the appropriate forecasting technique and compares and in particular contrasts forecasting methods as they relate to an organization called United Parcel Service. It looks at how there are three types of forecasting to predict demand: judgment methods, time series analysis and causal methods.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
Judgment Methods
Time Series Analysis
Causal Methods
Conclusion
From the Paper "Judgment methods can be defined as tools that use opinions to develop forecasts without reference to any available historical data. The basis for judgment methods is to utilize decision-makers that have sufficient experience to establish forecasts. This is a low cost method that has rapid development time. However, it is not consistently accurate and subject to bias. The judgment method would not work at the UPS billing site. Most of the forecasting is based on previous numbers and historical data collected as far back as two years ago. Plans for staffing, potential growth, and volume production are weighed in comparison with these same factors in previous years of operation especially during
their consolidation processes. "
Tags: judgment, method, time, series, analysis, causal
Abstract The paper defines a codependent person as one who has allowed another person's behavior to affect him and who is obsessed with controlling that person's behavior. The paper discusses the need to develop a sense of self so we do not in effect turn it over to someone else. The paper looks at the works of Carl Rogers and Erik Erikson's eight stages of development, specifically, the stage of intimacy versus isolation. Finally, the paper looks at the approach of Gestalt therapy and the idea of circular causality.
Outline:
Introduction
The Sense of Self
Adult Development
Gestalt Theory
Circular Causality and Reciprocity
From the Paper "Codependents are people who are more bound with the problems and lives of other people than they are with their own. Codependents are described here as victims of other people who have such problems as alcoholism, obsessive gambling, workaholism, or some other affliction that makes them too dependent on a loved one, someone close to the afflicted person who suffers in their own way as a consequence. Beattie (1987) provides a history of the concept of codependency and the development of the term in psychology, deciding finally that a codependent person is one who has allowed another person's behavior to affect him or her and who is obsessed with controlling that person's behavior. The author then details the characteristics of codependency before turning to the main thrust of the book, which is how to overcome codependency."
Abstract The paper examines the three criteria that usually determine a 'right versus wrong' dilemma and discusses two forms of ethical theory; theoretical normative ethics and metaethics. The paper also explains the teleological and the deontological approaches to normative ethical theory. The paper asserts that it is impossible to extricate this 'right versus wrong' debate from a discussion of causality, as all matters of ethics have at their root fundamental assumptions of causality that determine their ultimate utility and application.
From the Paper "Causality is the relation between two items one of which is a cause of the other. 'Causality' or 'causation' may also refer to a group of topics including the nature of the causal relation, causal explanation, and the status of causal laws. In modern philosophy, the notion of cause is associated with the idea of something producing or bringing about something else (its effect), a relation sometimes called efficient causation. Historically, the term cause has a broader sense, equivalent to explanatory feature. This usage survives in the account of Aristotle as holding the doctrine of the four causes. The members of Aristotle's quartet, the material, formal, efficient, and final cause, correspond to four kinds of explanation, but only the efficient cause is, without a problem, a candidate for a cause that produces something distinct from itself (Mackie)."
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant entered the realm of speculative cosmology, which he saw as centering on the idea of the world as the totality of the causal sequence of phenomena. In this way, he addressed what he saw as a conflict between ideas about human freedom and the general explanation of causality as offered by science. The issues raised included a concern for the meaning of human freedom, an understanding of how the human mind works, and a consideration of what this meant for moral reasoning.
The speculative cosmologist attempts to extend his or her knowledge of the world by means of synthetic a priori propositions. Kant stats, though, that this procedure leads to antimonies, and these arise when each of two contradictory propositions can be proved. If it is true that speculative cosmology leads to antimonies, then it must be assumed that its ... "
Abstract Conflict theory in criminal justice is based on the assumption that society is grounded in inherent conflict that cannot be resolved. This paper discusses how conflict theorists argue that those who hold power and wealth in a capitalist economy force the less-powerful to abide by their established rules with the purpose of protecting their own property and physical safety. It explains that the theory relies on a Marxist interpretation of the function of a capitalist society. It also shows how the theory argues for a broader definition of crime to include offenses and actions intended to maintain the ruling structure. This paper addresses how the theory and models of punishment based on the theory require an understanding of criminal justice that takes into consideration the social and political causes of crime, particularly models of treatment based on a concept of restorative justice.
Table of Contents
History and Definition of Conflict Theory
Human Nature
Social Order
Causal Logic of Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory and Criminal Justice Policy
Conflict Theory and Criminal Justice Practice
Evaluation
Bibliography
From the Paper "Before the 1960s, most criminology research and theory was conducted under the rubric of structural-functionalism, which assumed the primacy of the social system and the inter-relationship of social institutions without much focus or consideration for the individuals or groups who made up the institutions. However, critics of these theories argued that by minimizing the social conflict and tension inherent within society, these theories supported a politically conservative agenda within sociology and criminology."
