Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the traits of order and categorization, without which society cannot function, are especially prominent in the Victorian society in which 'The French Lieutenant's Woman' is set. The writer points out that the Victorian era is an outstanding example of when categorization was taken to the extreme, almost completely suppressing the socially and scientifically inexplicable instead of incorporating it into a system as had been done in religion and superstition. The writer discusses that Fowles' experimentation with the most fundamental elements of the Victorian novel (for instance with their endings) clearly indicates that he actually uses his image of Sarah to highlight the limitations he suffers in his own position as author with an equal weight. The writer notes that Fowles shows, through his exploration of the categorization of the individual and the external world, and his evasion of authorial convention, that the problems of excessive categorization are just as much of a problem for the author himself - not just the world around him.
From the Paper "That which makes The French Lieutenant's Woman most radical and arguably post-modern, however, is that Fowles goes beyond the implicit existentialism of modernist literature and becomes directly self-reflexive. He tackles the idea of unnecessary categorization far more directly by exploring it in his own position as author. Fowles demonstrates this in his unwillingness to be limited by basic premises of narrative of the conventional novel. Interruptions to the narrative, denial of authorial omniscience, moving backwards and forwards in time as easily as in the imagination - these are all attempts by Fowles to avoid being pinned down. The Victorian crusade of categorization, it seems, was still evident in the need for a 'second wave' of feminism in the 1960s - excessive categorization, while already established as a problem by some Victorians, required a 'second' wave for the internalization of this change in attitude."
Abstract This work deals with Kant's understanding of the basis for moral actions taken from his work entitled "The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals". He believes that there is one criterion for moral obligation which he refers to as the "categorical imperative". A large part of this essay discusses the four ways in which this "categorical imperative" can be formulated.
From the Paper "In presenting the one criterion for moral obligation, Immanuel Kant first rejects other moral traditions before his time: among them, the virtue theory, which bases morality on good character traits; and the consequential theory, which bases it on the consequences of actions. In response, he argues that moral actions are based only on a "supreme principle of morality" ? one that is objective, rational and freely chosen -- which he called the categorical imperative."
Tags: Kant, Categorical, Imperative, morality, obligation, objective, formula
This paper discusses Immanuel Kant's famous argument that his Categorical Imperative is fundamentally different and superior to the greatly flawed Golden Rule.
1,190 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 4 sources, 2002, $ 40.95
Abstract This paper agrees with Kant that the Categorical Imperative is very different from the Golden Rule. The author believes that the Categorical Imperative is clearly independent of the sentiment regarding the self; whereas, the Golden Role's moral strength comes directly from, and is dependent on, a sentiment regarding the self. The author concludes that the Golden Rule seems much more consistent with the irrational mess that is human morality and behavior and is an invaluable and simple tool for guiding moral decisions than is the Categorical Imperative.
From the Paper "Kant himself more succinctly states his Categorical Imperative as "Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law." Under Kant's Categorical Imperative, an action can only be considered moral if it fulfils three important criteria. First, the action must be judged to be universally acceptable. Second, the action must be judged to respect the dignity of persons. Finally, the judged action must be acceptable to rational people. Further, the Categorical Imperative must always be followed regardless of individual self-interest."
This paper explores the first and second formulations of Emmanuel Kant's "Categorical Imperative" and cites evidence that the two can indeed work together, contrary to prominent interpretation.
1,900 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 0 sources, 2001, $ 60.95
Abstract This paper is centrally interested in the definition of "objectivity" in the work of E. Kant, particularly in relation to his first first and second formulations of the categorical imperative. This paper explores the conventional interpretation of the notion of objectivity, and then offers a modernized understanding of the term.
From the Paper "This essay holds that the application of the first and second formulations of Kant's moral doctrine the categorical imperative"the purpose of which is to determine the morality of human action"can and must be applied in conjunction. When applied in conjunction, it is shown that the two formulations prohibit and enjoin the same actions for the same reason. First, this essay explores the conventional interpretation of the first and second formulations of the categorical imperative. After mentioning the primary fault of this interpretation?namely, the confusion surrounding the interpretation of the terms "objective" or "objectivity"? a new interpretation is suggested."
A project proposal for exploring the link between categorization and prejudice within the social cognition perspective, particularly focusing on race, gender and age.
Abstract This research proposal aims to explore the link between categorization and prejudice within the social cognition perspective. It utilizes a multiple, or inter-sectional, approach to social cognition research and looks at three separate yet complementary aspects of social identity - race, gender and age. The paper aims to render a more nuanced account of stereotyping and the social-cognitive context in which these prejudices are enacted.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Aim
Project Description
Methodology
Participants
Stimulus Materials
Procedure
Choice of Methods for Observation
From the Paper "The complexity of this intersectional research project involves a large number of operational variables. It is felt that by situating the project in a research laboratory environment and controlling for the age and race of the participants, a more accurate picture of automatic prejudice can be rendered. The laboratory is also well-suited to the restrictive timeframe being placed on participant responses, as well as the need for participant isolation and anonymity. It is hoped that these mechanisms will aid in eliciting automatic rather than conscious responses from the participants."
Abstract This paper looks at representativeness heuristics and at availability heuristics, provide examples of both, and outline how the use of such heuristics often leads to inaccurate conclusions. At the same time, the paper also looks at why it cannot be said that the application of heuristics by human beings immediately makes people "irrational" in some fundamental sense.
From the Paper "When taking into account the concept of heuristics and the various limitations the authors delineate, it is actually rather hard to countenance the idea that heuristics generally leads to true conclusions. For one thing, turning momentarily to availability heuristics, even when someone is aware of their basis and makes a conscious effort to correct it, they often over-compensate - and that even rudimentary efforts at over-compensation appears to be relatively rare. For instance, the Nisbett and Ross report that "simple, tempting, availability criteria are used in contexts in which availability and frequency are poorly correlated.""
Tags: frequency limitations, goodness to fit, categorizationfaulty
Abstract The following paper examines whether a retailer, specifically - TV World Ltd. is reliable for faulty tv sets, under the Sale of Goods Act 1979. The writer discusses the case study presented where TV World Ltd., a retail business, advertised a new 28 inch stereo television with teletext. The paper continues to examine how Ms. Hardy bought the television set for ?300 but after a month it broke down. This paper asserts that Ms. Hardy signed a clause in the sales contract excluding liability under the Sale of Goods Act. The writer looks at a number of points had to be considered before establishing Ms. Hardy's legal position. .
From the Paper "Under section 12 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 we can see that the TV World Ltd does have the right to sell the television in question. Section 13 ascertains that there is an implied condition that the goods will correspond with the description. Although Ms Hardy saw the TV in operation before he bought it, we can say that it was still bought by description as she was relying on the TV being a stereo model as described. TV World Ltd argues that as Ms Hardy should have realised that it was not a stereo model as she watched the set in the store. As Ms Hardy is just a consumer, she cannot be an expert in televisions and therefore it would be unfair to say that she should have known. We can see this in Beal v Taylor (1967) 3 ALL ER 253 where the plaintiff had inspected the car before she bought but later realised that it was an earlier model. The Court of Appeal held that the plaintiff was entitled to damages for breach of section 13 as she had relied on the description contained in the advertisement. Similar facts are found in the present situation and the goods have not corresponded to their description so TV World Ltd has breached section 13."
Abstract This paper discusses 'faulty analogy', 'slippery slope argument,' and 'red herring' and shows how these logical fallacies have had a detrimental effect on critical thinking and decision making. The paper also points out that critical thinking and decisions in the area of ethics seem to be particularly vulnerable to logical fallacies.
From the Paper "Faulty analogies, such as the example cited above, are common since it is easy to become impressed by a connection or two and then see an analogy where there really isn"t one (O"Rourke, 2001, Ch.7, para 22). Surprisingly, even organizations often make business decisions based on faulty analogies. Take, for example, the mistakes made by Disney Parks and Resorts in France. Based on the successful replication of its U.S. theme parks in Japan, Disney assumed that the same business model would work in Paris as well. Euro Disney, however, proved to be a very different story in terms of operations. While there were some similarities in customer preferences, the differences proved to be far stronger. For instance, one of the biggest differences, which proved to be a costly error for Disney, was that Europeans treated theme parks as places for day excursions."
Abstract This paper describes some of the early "scientific" intelligent tests and how the scientists performing these tests either falsified data or their findings in order to achieve the desired results. The paper also describes tests where scientists either didn't use proper methods for obtaining data or used faulty reasoning to keep their theory believable. Finally, the paper concludes that, while today's intelligence tests are not flawed as they were in the past, in the past scientists often came to many conclusive statements unscientifically.
From the Paper "It's 11:00 PM; Channel 7 News reports of a comet heading towards earth; could this be the end of the world? After pulling the attention of all nearby viewers, they continue with the news, only to leave this story to be the last of the night. It turns out that in the year 2443, a comet will come within 10 miles from Earth, possibly impacting. Bending the truth is a common way to draw the attention of gullible or curious individuals. Such is the case with many early scientists mentioned in Stephen Jay Gould's The Mismeasure of Man. Many of the scientists in The Mismeasure of Man worked unscientifically; some used false data to enhance the appeal of their findings to the scientific community, while some others just simply did not test accurately or used poor data."
Abstract This paper examines how Nietzsche ultimately argues that Kantian reason in justifying the categorical imperative is enslaving. It explains that not only is the logic of the categorical imperative enslaving, but also it is ultimately cruel because it restricts the freedom of individuals and holds back the good from prospering. The categorical imperative argues that there is an inherent value to morality and that doing one's moral duty is an imperative.
From the Paper "Kant further argues that actions can only be called moral if they are undertaken only for their own sake without regard to their ends and without regard to the specific of the situation. One must be willing to will his actions as a universal law in order for them to be considered moral. Nietzsche soundly denies this concept, arguing that morals don?t have intrinsic value but derive their meaning from a historical event. Morals are contextual, and, even worse, a degradation and perversion of the natural order. Nietzsche discusses the manner in which morality developed to enslave the stronger among humanity, and how this historical "slave revolt in morality" has served to cruelly enslave man. Nietzsche believes that "bad conscience" has served to enslave humanity and pervades all of culture, rendering it cruel, harmful, and unnatural. In science, Nietzsche momentarily locates the possibility of an antidote to the morality of ?good and evil,? but due to the significance it places on truth, Nietzsche ultimately dismisses it, too. Only by transcending conventional Judeo-Christian morality can the cruelty of the culture of the categorical imperative ultimately be overcome."
Abstract This paper examines the viewpoints of each of the philosophers -- G.E. Moore, W.D. Ross, John Rawls and Richard Mervyn Hare -- who, at some point in their various writings, ask: How do we know what is right and correct, and how do we act upon the answer to this question? The author points out that, to varying degrees, all of these philosophers write against, and yet ,in response to the popular theories of utilitarianism and the earlier postulate of Kantian moral absolutism as embodied in the categorical imperative, but no one agrees with John Stewart Mill or Emmanuel Kant. The paper relates that, in contrast to Ross and Moore, Rawls believes that it is possible to reach some categorical generalization about society as a whole when individual rights are in conflict.
Table of Contents
G.E. Moore
W.D. Ross
John Rawls
Richard Mervyn Hare
From the Paper "The philosopher Mervyn Hare was later to expand upon this idea that dealing with this values/factual distinction. He accepted both philosophers notions that these catagorizations were important in making moral determinations. However, unlike Ross, Hare advances a non-cognitively based ethical theory. Hare suggests that although there may not be pre-existing moral codes pre-existing or outside of the cognitive structures of the human mind, there is a need within a societal framework for moral assertions to prescribe codes in a universal fashion that makes them binding upon every human being."
Abstract In this article, the writer explains that law can be classified in different ways. The writer notes that such classification is a useful exercise in learning and for obtaining an overview of the subject as it helps one to break up a large topic into manageable proportions. However, the writer points out that it must be remembered that the classification of law is an arbitrary exercise and there is no absolute or "right way" of categorizing law. In this paper, some of the ways in which law can be categorized are discussed.
Outline:
Civil Law and Criminal Law
Classification by Subject
Classification by Scope
Classification by Origins of Law
Procedural Law vs. Substantive Law
References
From the Paper "Perhaps the simplest way to classify law is to divide it in two broad categories: civil law and criminal law. In such a classification, one can assume that civil law is all law other than criminal law. Hence in this type of grouping, all laws other than criminal law such as property law, contract law, tort, commercial, and administrative law fall under the broad heading of civil law and are dealt with by the civil courts. As opposed to this, criminal law is dealt with by criminal courts."
"Such categorization of law is useful because it highlights the differences between civil and criminal law, which are important to understand the intricacies of legal systems of countries such as the United States."
Tags: criminal, administrative, courts, legal, systems
Abstract This paper deals with approaches taken to Kant's categorical imperative. The author examines the Kant's work such as "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals", and various interpretations by critics such as Dietrichson as well as Allison. A look at Kant's approach to methodologies.
From the Paper "When Immanuel Kant wrote his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, it was as the basis for which he would write all his latter works on the study of morality ? namely reason in Kant's estimation (though admittedly this is a simplification). There have been numerous chapters written on Kant's work in the Groundwork, and therefore, there have been numerous approaches to analysis of the Groundwork attempted by authors who have sought to either support or attack Kant's conceptions of human motivations."
Abstract This paper creates a wartime ethical dilemma of a lieutenant who is asked to be a decoy by his commanding officer but refuses. His commanding officer threatens to shoot him. The lieutenant continues to object and gets shot. The author argues the question by using Mill's utilitarian theory, Kant's categorical imperative theory and Royce's loyalty theory.
From the Paper "There are two fundamental issues in this situation that challenge Mill, Kant and Royce: First, whether sacrificing Lt. Downs as a decoy is justifiable, and second, whether shooting him in the face of his non-compliance was justifiable, or even humane."
From the Paper "This paper will examine the third formula of Kant's categorical imperative by scrutinizing the four illustrations he uses to prove his point. The categorical imperative is an attempt at a formal law which, if followed, will dictate and result in moral action. In the third formula of the categorical imperative Kant states that one must: "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end." According to Kant this rule should fit any moral situation and any situation which does not fit this formula cannot be moral. It is this contention - that he has found a set of absolute guidelines - which will be questioned.
As a means, for it will be shown here that they are not ends in themselves, of supporting his third formula Kant employs four ... "
