Abstract
This paper explains that, although global positioning systems provide cartographers with the ability to pinpoint topographical features and today the ability to express relief and contours on modern maps is commonplace, it was not always this easy. The author points out that, while the history of map-making is truly ancient, the ability to communicate accurately relief features on maps began in Italy during the 15th century. The paper concludes that today's cartographer enjoys the benefits of centuries of research into different ways of communicating three-dimensional features on two-dimensional planes and that the introduction of powerful three-dimensional computer-based visualization applications represents a true milestone in cartography history. The paper includes quotations and illustrations.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Rationale in Support of Study
Previous Research
Objective of the Study
Organization of the Study
Background of the Study of Relief Representation
Theoretical Framework
Methodology
Study Design
Theoretical Basis
Research Strategy Employed
Execution of the Study of Relief Representation
Results and Analysis of Relief Representation Techniques
Results
Analysis
Summary and Conclusions
Summary
Conclusions
Limitations of the Study
Recommendation for Future Research

From the Paper
"According to Kirschenbauer and Buchroithner (2001), although these three-dimensional techniques provide the user with a decent overall impression of the represented relief, the transmission of detailed information and precise height data as it is rendered by contour lines is not simplified to any significant degree. This is because any of the older (which is to say a couple of years) present detailed landforms with techniques that do not provide a truly comprehensive picture yet. However, these authors emphasize that new technological innovations are making strides in this direction every day."

Tags:color, hachures, three-dimensional, contour, software

Abstract
This paper reviews and analyzes the early maps of the Americas, the men who created them, the institutions that produced and promoted them based on data and rough maps brought back to Europe by explorers, and the purposes - especially their communicative capabilities - they served in terms of the development of colonial properties for Spain, England, and Portugal among other European nations.

Outline:
Thesis Statement
Introduction: Incomplete Communication in Some Maps
Literature Review: History of Maps and the Age of Discovery

From the Paper
"Certainly the leaders in Portugal and Spain, among the most active early exploring nations, had volumes of logs, notes, journals and other historical records of discoveries made by their intrepid sailors. But, according to Monica L. Smith, writing in Annals of the Association of American Geographers (Smith, 2005), "...the visual stimulus of a map may be more powerful than the scholarly text that accompanies it." Smith explains. Indeed, by providing a visual image "the map gives another dimension to the image it represents," Smith states in her article, "and restricts, or even overtakes, the freedom of its reader to create an image of his own." There are implications of "linguistics" within the creation of a map, Smith asserts, through the process of the cartographer's "consciously created and manipulated" images. But Smith, a professor of anthropology at UCLA, believes while ancient maps do communicate dimensions that are extremely useful to historians, "the understanding of maps as interpretive documents" has had little or no affect on portrayals of the "premodern past." That is due to the fact that scholarly illustrations of historic lands and cultures "tend to be of the absolutist variety." Smith believes the use of maps in textbooks too often communicate a narrow and shallow picture of early cultural groups. One map in a text "implies that a state or empire was always growing toward its eventual borders in a kind of long-term manifest destiny."

Tags:maps, discovery, explore, cartography

Abstract
The paper discusses how the European settlers long utilized boundary setting and the definition of geographical boundaries for both cartographic and political purposes. The paper describes how in Canada, the earliest settlers essentially redefined the boundaries of the territory in a fashion that facilitated its exploitation.

Tags:toronto, geography, boundaries

Abstract
This paper discusses how rail navigation systems evolved from transit maps to the sophisticated technological devices used by travelers today. The writer explains the importance of cartographic design and simple and recognizable images in assisting passengers to navigate train stations. The writer also discusses the growing use of global positioning systems by both travelers and rail management, who use a more advanced version, the differential global positioning system, in order to track trains in areas that are obscured by obstacles such as hills and tunnels, and avoid collisions.

Outline:
Introduction
Early Navigation Systems
Contemporary Train Travel
Evolution of Effective Navigation Systems
Pictograms
Global Positioning Systems
Conclusion

From the Paper
"As rail networks grew in number, competition among the different lines became fierce; this was particularly true during the mid 1800s. During this period, growth was particularly rapid: Britain had 6,900 miles of track, and the United States had 9,000. One factor that clearly mattered to travelers was to know how to navigate within the system; another was the efficiency of the navigation system, and of the train line itself. After all, the point of taking a train was, primarily, to reach a specific destination, and within a specific timeframe. Without efficient map systems, it was difficult to achieve that goal."

Tags:transportation, railroad, safety, schedule, pedestrian, urban, environment

Abstract
This paper describes some of the accomplishments of Father Eusebio Kino, his influence on a great many individuals in the Western portion of the United States, and provides an historical account of his life and career.

Introduction
Life Before the Priesthood
Life Range
His Life's Work

From the Paper
"Father Kino's family name was originally Chini but he adopted Kino after college. Kino was a scholar first. His education consisted of several universities including Trent and later Hall near Innsbruck. His educational pursuits also took him to several excellent Universities such as Landsberg, Ingolstadt, Innsbruck, Munich and Oehingen. He had already distinguished himself in several fields of study including mathematics, cartography, and astronomy in Germany. He was a distinguished mathematician and also observed the comet of 1680?81 at Cdiz, where he published his discovery in his "Exposici'n astron mica de el [sic] cometa". He also taught mathematics for a short while at the University of Ingolstadt. As is the case with many European citizens, he was gifted in multiple languages including Italian, Spanish Swiss, German and French. This ability to speak multiple languages helped him later acquire the local American Indian languages and dialects."

Tags:pastor, explorer, teacher, rancher, farmer, ethnographer, diplomat, cartographer, arizona