Abstract
This paper explains that, during the time of the Romans as it is today, making war on another country for the reasons of seeking power or for another nation's wealth was unpopular and untenable; instead, other motives needed to be created to justify the Roman's third war against Carthage in 149 B.C.E. Next, the author contends that the official powers in Rome could not have really felt threatened by Carthage but rather Cato saw the opportunity to appropriate a greater share of the Carthaginian wealth for the Roman Empire and its nearby allies. The paper describes the Third Punic War especially the complex interplay between Rome, Carthage and the Numidians under King Massinissa, the three powers interested in the North African region, which led to the fear mongering that supported the war. The sources are in the footnotes.

From the Paper
"Even the explanations given by Pliny and Appian concerning Cato's rather baseless rabble-rousing have been called into question by modern scholars, however. Some even maintain that "it may be doubted whether Cato really went to Africa at all," and that the historians who first recorded such a trip and Cato's attitude towards Carthage in its aftermath were themselves attempting to justify similar military actions. Fear mongering has remained a popular way for garnering public support for otherwise unjustifiable wars, and these historians shows that it was popular even as a retroactive measure two thousand years ago. When war against a particular enemy or region is desired but no reasonable and ethical motive presents itself, most nations in history have not found a great deal of repugnance."

Tags:greed, pre-emptive attack, cato numidians siege

Abstract
This paper looks briefly at the writings of third century bishop Cyprian of Carthage who wrote extensively on what he saw was the most important issue of the day. The paper explains that this was the unity of the Church at that time. The paper provides a brief biography of his life and relevant details of his career and then examines the issues of lapsed Christians, Episcopal schisms and Biblical evidence of Unity.

From the Paper
"The treatise entitled "De Unitate Ecclesiae," or "On the Unity of the Catholic Church," by Cyprian of Carthage is an important piece of Church history, and documents a particular problem in the early Church and the ways in which it was handled (Fitzgerald). The document reflects both the life and important issues to Cyprian, but also the dire matters of the Church that had the potential to forever affect Christianity as we know it. In order to understand this document, one must also learn about Cyprian and vice-versa. Saint Cyprian, martyr and Bishop of Carthage, in Africa, in the third century AD, converted to Christianity in the year 245 or 246, at age 47 and he became bishop only 2 years after his conversion (Giles 49)."

Tags:cyprian, carthage, unity

Abstract
This paper discusses the Punic Wars, which were three wars between Rome and Carthage from the period 264 BC to 146 BC. The writer explains that Carthage and Rome probably represented two of the world's first real superpowers, and the Punic Wars were the result of these two entities struggling for territory and power. The author of the paper examines the three wars, how they affected the balance of power in the region and the historical repercussions resulting from them, specifically, the beginning of the Roman Empire.

From the Paper
"The First Punic War lasted from 264BCE to 241BC. The First Punic War began as a local power struggle. Hiero II of Syracuse and the Mamertines of Messina got involved in a power struggle in Sicily. The Mamertines sought aid from Carthage, which responded by sending its Navy to support the Mamertines. However, the Mamertines were quickly dissatisfied with the aid that they received from Carthage, and went to the Roman Senate for help against Carthage. The Roman Senate responded by sending troops to help secure Messina. However, this posed a problem for the Romans, who did not have a standing army of sufficient size to help the Mamertines. It was decided that C. Claudius would move by sea and try to reinforce Messina. The venture was risky, because "even if C. Claudius' force could elude the Carthaginian ships, it might not be strong enough to evict the garrison holed up in the formidable citadel and then hang on until reinforced." (Bagnall, p.49). The venture worked, and the Romans were able to secure the town of Messina. The Carthaginians responded by helping Syracuse. What had begun as a local power struggle quickly erupted into an all-out war, with both Carthage and Rome struggling to control Sicily."

Tags:hannibal, republican, senate, corvus, empire, celts, nero

Abstract
It is an accepted human weakness that we are not happy with the things we possess. There is a constant desire to achieve and obtain more. This paper shows how Marlowe, in his "Complete Plays", stresses this very issue by presenting three separate characters in three separate plays, all with the same tragic flaw. Each character, namely, Dido, Tamburlaine, and Dr. Faustus, exhibit a desire for the unattainable, and the plays depict their struggle and inevitable failure to obtain the impossible. In using his characters and demonstrating their flaws, Marlowe is providing a social commentary on the culture of that time.

From the Paper
"In Dido's case the unattainable is Aeneas. Her desire to love Aeneus and have him reciprocate this love is so great she would abdicate her throne declaring, "now bring him back, and thou shalt be a queen. And I will live a private life with him"(Dido, Act. V sc. i line:197-98). Yet sadly the forces of destiny and fate overpower Dido and her strong love for Aeneas. While the two may share in their affection for each other, the fate of Aeneas is not to marry Dido, but rather to found the city of Rome an ocean away. Yet Dido pleads with Aeneas and in some ways fate to remain in Carthage. The importance of Aeneas to the future of Rome, his destiny, takes precedence over his relationship with Dido. Dido, nonetheless, does nothing but counter what is already destined to transpire. In fighting for Aeneas Dido is fighting against an immutable destiny, a fight that culminates with her suicide. Yet with her dying words she invokes the very fate that destroyed her decreeing, "and from mine ashes let a conqueror rise, that may revenge this treason to a queen by ploughing up his countries with the sword"(Dido, Act.V sc.i line:306-08)."

Tags:aeneas

Abstract
This paper explains that the Punic Wars were between Punic and Rome, starting in 264 B.C.E. and ending in 146 B.C.E., and were for control of the central Mediterranean Sea, which eventually resulted in Roman Empire's massive military forces subduing Carthage. The author points out a specific psychological poster made by the Romans, during the Punic Wars, to influence the Roman citizens as to the importance of the war and to imply that their participation in it would give them a sense of pride. The paper contends that this poster works because it neither belittles the enemy nor targets the wrong audience; rather, it correctly identifies its objective and glorifies its own resources instead of wrongly focusing on its enemy's attributes. The paper includes examples of Nazi and Japanese war propaganda.

Table of Contents
Punic Wars
War and Propaganda
The Selected Poster and Its Effectiveness

From the Paper
"The use of this poster was all about manipulation of emotions. During the war, people are often confused as to how they should react to the situation. Sometimes the media with its various tactics steps in the picture to make people's decisions for them and to help them think in a certain manner. Their emotions are manipulated and use to politicians' advantage. We can better understand this by the help of another example. During the Nazi period, the German government wanted to win the support of nation on the issue of driving Jews out of the country and killing them. The government tried to play with the emotions of people by issuing a leaflet "The Girl You Left Behind"."

Tags:nazi, japanese, carthage, citizens, manipulation

Abstract
This paper examines how in Virgil's "Aeneid" Book 4, epic and tragedy, are inextricably linked by the use of similes, the relationship between civic duty and responsibility and the intervention of fate and the gods. It looks at how Aeneas, whose epic journey carries him past Carthage, inspires love in Dido who suffers a whole range of emotion, from love, to confusion, to hatred. It also explores the tragic element with Aeneas, who must sacrifice his love for Dido to pursue his destiny to found Rome.

From the Paper
"The essential basis of the tragedy is that Dido sacrifices everything for her personal love for Aeneas. She ultimately fails to understand Aeneas' argument about his duty because in her eyes personal considerations override everything else. She allows herself to be drawn into a position from which she can find no way back and has allows herself to become embroiled in a net of circumstances. The element of pathos is very great in the first half of the book as Dido allows herself to let her emotions run free, and in the second half it continues, together with a feeling of horror and terror as she becomes a typical fury of vengeance rather than a queen or woman."

Tags:dido, rome, carthage

Abstract
This paper explains that, in his epic "The Aeneid", Virgil considered fate to be so unyielding that not even the gods themselves could intervene to prevent an event from coming to fruition. The author points out that Juno, queen of the gods and the main antagonist in Virgil's foundational fiction, is not affected by the same fate that rules over humans; nevertheless, she actively attempts to obstruct the Roman hero Aeneas in his journey to fulfill his own destiny, which Juno suspects will be responsible both for the downfall of her favorite city, Carthage, and the death of her most cherished mortal, Turnus. The paper indicates that, while it is recognized that Juno is not solely responsible for destiny's success, her actions are frequently responsible for eliciting other gods' reactions, which are more closely linked to fulfilling fate.

From the Paper
"At this point, Juno recognizes that she can no longer keep Aeneas away from Italy, but decides that she might still have a chance to defeat him by stirring war between the Trojans and the otherwise welcoming Latins. To do this, Juno sends down Allecto to enrage the Latin queen, Amata, and Turnus, her favorite Latin, to oppose a wedding between the Latin Princess Lavinia and Aeneas. Allecto then ignites war as instructed by causing Ascanius, Aeneas' son, to kill a Latin stag. Amata and Turnus cry for war and the neutral Latin king relinquishes his power over the kingdom. Though Juno succeeds in inciting conflict and initially preventing Trojan occupation, her arousal of Latin furies proves to be the first in a series of events which lead to the fall of the Latin empire, clearing the way for fate to establish itself."

Tags:free-will, fate, juno, carthage, war

Abstract
This paper shows how Virgil conveys in his epic, "The Aeneid", that fate was once considered to be so unyielding that not even the gods themselves could intervene to prevent its coming to fruition. Juno, queen of the gods and the main antagonist in Virgil's foundational fiction, is not affected by the same fate that rules over humans. Nevertheless, she actively attempts to obstruct the Roman hero Aeneas in his journey to fulfill his own destiny, which Juno suspects will be responsible both for the downfall of her favorite city, Carthage, and the death of her most cherished mortal, Turnus. This paper shows that although some may argue that Venus is responsible for foiling Juno's intentions, it is ironically Juno herself, in her actions to thwart Aeneas, who brings about the fated events she tries to prevent. This is demonstrated by Dido's death coupled with Carthage's fated demise as well as Aeneas' prophesied founding of Rome.

From the Paper
"As a subsequent result of Juno's attempt to save Turnus, Turnus begins to lose support from his army and is forced to settle the war with Aeneas in a fight to the death. When the fight finally commences, Aeneas soon has Turnus pleading for Aeneas' mercy. Aeneas is initially moved by Turnus' reasoning, but spots the young Pallas' belt on Turnus' arm. This sight reminds Aeneas of Turnus' own brazen ruthlessness and Aeneas executes Turnus, which clears the way for the founding of Rome. Since Juno originally inspires Turnus to fight against the Trojans, and Turnus murders Pallas, she secures Turnus' doom."

Tags:aeolus, anchises, iris, lavinia, trojan, troy

Abstract
This three-page undergraduate paper describe how Rome, the village, emerged to become Rome the most powerful Mediterranean Empire. After a prolonged series of wars and struggle, the city of Rome became one of the most famous empires of the world. The strength of the Romans shone through as they persevered to attain power. Carthage, their powerful rival, lost at Romans' hands. After attaining much power, however, Rome faltered and became weak as its influential became greedy, amoral and selfish, before leaders stood up again to make things right.

Abstract
Christine de Pizan's "Book of the City of Ladies" (1405) was written to counteract the lies and misrepresentations about women's character that the author found in the male dominated world of literature. The paper shows that Pizan's main example was Dido, the Phoenician widow of Sychaeus, who escaped her brother's tyranny by fleeing from Tyre to North Africa. There she founded and ruled over the great city of Carthage. The paper explains how, in her book, Pizan went about rehabilitating Dido's reputation by recounting her great prudence as leader of her people and her constancy in love. It shows how this account of Dido counteracts, in very different ways, the versions of Dido's career in Virgil's "Aeneid" and in Dante's "Divine Comedy" in which she is portrayed as "one of the most vilified women of world literature."

From the Paper
"That is all that is left of the woman who was also famous for outwitting various male leaders and for her successful founding and leadership of a great state. Clearly Dante had a somewhat different way of looking at Dido than Virgil did. For Dante she was merely the embodiment of the female sins of lust (for Aeneas) and infidelity (to the memory of Sychaeus) for which so many famous women seemed to find themselves in the second circle of the Inferno--where more women than are found than in any other circle in Dante's Hell. But in the Aeneid Dido is clearly a woman of considerable power and great accomplishments. She is also clearly seen as worthy of Aeneas and is practically a female version of the hero. She is widowed, forced to flee, founds a new city, and her descendants become a powerful civilization--under the protection of Juno. Aeneas' wife dies at the fall of Troy, he is forced to flee and, eventually, he arrives in Italy to fulfill his destiny and found a great race--under the protection of Venus."

Tags:Trojan, Venus