Abstract This essay examines the psychological characteristics and psychosocial factors associated with, or causative of, cardiovasculardisease. The essay also addresses some models like the cardio reactivity model, psychoneuroimmunology, the role of the sympathetic nervous system in cardiovasculardisease, and the HPA axis. The association of certain psychosocial risk factors such as depression leading to medical non-compliance is also dealt with.
Outline:
Introduction
Psychological Factors Associated With or Causative of CardiovascularDisease Psychosocial Factors
Cardio Reactivity Model
Psychoneuroimmunology
The Involvement of the Sympathetic Nervous System
The HPA Axis
Association of Psychosocial Risk Factors with Certain Health Behaviors
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Psychological risk factors for coronary syndromes belong to three categories. These include: chronic, episodic, and acute psychological risk factors (Kop, 1999). Chronic psychological risk factors (like hostility) lead to a gradual progression of coronary artery disease. The temporal relation to coronary syndrome is 10 years and the associated cardiovascular risks include hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and increased sympathetic activation. The pathophysiology involves sympathetic activity and elevated lipids. The primary pathological result is atherosclerosis (Kop, 1999).
"Psychological risk factors, which occur episodically (like exhaustion) have a duration, which lasts from few months to two years and can occur again. The temporal relation to coronary syndrome is 2 years and the associated cardiovascular risks include increased blood clotting and inflammation, and a shift of sympatho-vagal balance. The pathophysiology involves sympatho-vagal imbalance, neurohormonal changes, and a procoagulant state. The primary pathological result is altered homeostasis (Kop, 1999)."
Abstract This paper examines the race-associated differences in health outcomes among African-American women with CVD (CardiovascularDisease). The paper explains that African Americans suffer greater incidence of cardiovasculardisease, and women women suffer cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease in greater numbers than men. The combination of the two: African-American women, suffer greater cardiovasculardisease than the general population in the United States. The paper demonstrates that the above statements are true, and analyzes the causes for this discrepancy in cardiovascular diagnosis and care. The paper then looks at both the demographic as well as the socioeconomic and ethnological reasons for the difference in cardiovascular care. The paper also points out that women experience a greater amount of heart disease, and a lower level of treatment than men. This paper examines the reasons for that discrepancy as well.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Underlying Causes of Heart Disease African-American Women and Heart Disease Lifestyle, Heredity and Demographics
Differences in Medical Care
Differences in Demographics
Women's Lower Rate of CHD Treatment
African American Distrust of Physicians and the Medical System
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "Although death from coronary heart disease (CHD) is declining for both African Americans and white Americans, the rates are declining faster for white Americans than their Black counterparts. According to the AHA, the incidence of deaths by whites from CHD has declined 46% and 40% for white men and women, respectively, while it has declined 33% and 27% for African American men and women respectively from 1979 to 2002 (AORN, 2002). The AHA posited that the lower decline in the death rate from CHD for African Americans was due primarily to heredity and life style habits."
Abstract Cardiovasculardisease is one of the leading causes of mortality in the industrialized world. At the same time, high blood cholesterol is known to be a risk factor for heart disease. Decreasing total blood cholesterol can have a profound effect, reducing the incidence of coronary heart disease by close to 30%. Further, there is a wide variety of research that links blood cholesterol levels to heart disease and mortality. This paper presents a design for a study that aims to add to this body of evidence by investigating the impact of decreased cholesterol consumption on mortality from cardiovasculardisease.
From the Paper "In each facility, 1,000 research subjects will be recruited using voluntary recruitment procedures. Advertisements for volunteers will be placed in local newspapers, community message boards, and clinic and emergency waiting rooms. Subjects will range in age upwards from 21 years of age. Subjects will not be excluded from the study on any medical or other grounds. This wide range of subjects and large sample size will allow researchers to correlate cholesterol intake with a number of other factors, including age, sex, race, place of residence, and other medical conditions."
Abstract This paper explains that cardiovasculardiseases can be prevented by eating healthfully, participating regularly in aerobic activity, and by not smoking. The paper describes a diet that is heart healthy and stresses the importance of physical aerobic activity and the avoidance of cigarettes.
From the Paper "Nearly twenty percent of the American population has a form of Cardiovascular Disease. In 2002, thirty-five percent of the deaths in the United States were related to heart and blood vessel diseases according to the Center for Disease Control (CDC). Cardiovascular Disease includes Coronary Heart Disease, atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, and stroke. Some causes for Cardiovascular Disease can be attributed to physical inactivity, unhealthy nutritional planning, smoking, and age."
Abstract This paper explains that research has demonstrated that the psychosocial status of the individual is likely to correlate to their cardiovascular fitness. The author points out that positive social roles correlate to a positive status, while negative social roles lead to a lower level of status. The paper uses the Kolcaba Comfort Care Model to identify and promote positive psychosocial development in patients.
From the Paper "A growing body of data suggests that the emergence and severity of cardiovascular disease is contributed to by the psychosocial status of the body (Barry, 1996). The psychosocial status of the body refers to the correlation of social and psychological factors, and the impact that these factors have - both combined and separately - on the individual's physical status (Barry, 1996; Catherall, 2004). Data suggests that the psychosocial status of the individual has active correlates to the onset and development of heart disease, particularly cardiovascular failure (Drench, 2002; Catherall, 2004). "
A review of the limitations of "Prevalence and CardiovascularDisease Correlates of Low Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Adolescents and Adults," written by Mercedes R. Carnethon, Martha Gulati and Philip Greenland.
Abstract This paper discusses and reviews the article, "Prevalence and CardiovascularDisease Correlates of Low Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Adolescents and Adults," written by Mercedes R. Carnethon, Martha Gulati and Philip Greenland. It discusses the purpose of the study, the results and conclusions and the limitations of the study's methods.
From the Paper "The age selection was quite broad, so the study could control for other fitness factors relating to age impinging upon the results. But there is an obvious weakness in using such a large sampling. The population size is so diluted and generalized in its composition that the conclusions drawn from the study may be too vague to be of prescriptive use. To conduct the study, the authors submitted the test subjects to submaximal treadmill testing so they reached at least 75% to 90% of their age-predicted maximum heart rate. Maximal oxygen consumption, or VO2 max, was estimated by measuring their heart rate response to their effort. Low levels of fitness were defined by using percentile cut-off points of estimated VO2 max from existing external referent populations. In other words, the VO2 max definitions of fitness were derived purely from preexisting literature and studies. Similarly, the other physical and laboratory CVD risk factors measured according to standard methods were derived from preexisting literature."
Abstract This paper explains that hypertension, high levels of cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia), smoking and lack of physical activity are the four identifiable and modifiable risk factors associated with the development and progression of cardiovasculardisease and that these factors are especially high contributors to coronary artery disease in the elderly. The paper also examines the factors that make the elderly especially at risk for heart disease and discusses the prevention and treatment of the disease as well.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Focus and Intent
Critical Discussion
From the Paper "The elderly, those 65 years of age and older, are the fastest growing age group in the United States. "Individuals join the ranks of the elderly population at the rate of approximately 1,000 per day, and that number is likely to increase because the average life expectancy for persons reaching age 65 years is now an additional 15 years." In 1991, There were 30 million persons aged 65 years or greater in the United States, in 1991 and this figure is expected to increase to almost 50 million by the year 2020, approximately 20% of the population."
Abstract This paper studies descriptive epidemiology as it relates to the natural history of cardiovasculardisease. It begins with an overview of descriptive epidemiology and its application to the heart followed by the presentation of a number of findings from the Bogalusa Heart Study of 1972 through 1997. The paper concludes with a look at new studies and techniques, which are based on the Bogalusa model. Included is the beta-cath system for radiating an artery wall.
Outline
Introduction
Problem Background
Findings
Conclusions and Summary
From the Paper "At its simplest level, Epidemiology can be to have the description of the application of statistical methodologies to analyze the determinants of health and illness of a given population or sub-group within the population. This sort of analysis therefore has an application to the planning and evaluation of interventions and to the causation and prevention of illness. Moreover, as with most sciences Epidemiology presents itself in various formats and although the central role of Epidemiology within a department is to provide valid, reliable and appropriately interpreted data upon which decisions can be based, Epidemiology is usually divided, in a somewhat arbitrary manner along several lines. Our concern here however is with Descriptive Epidemiology as it relates to the epidemiology and natural history of Cardiovascular Disease."
Abstract The paper discusses the onset of coronary artery disease and the condition of atherosclerosis. The paper explains that coronary artery disease is primarily characterized as an inflammation of the arteries. The paper outlines the causes of this inflammation and examines the strong correlation between coronary artery disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as well as with Type II Diabetes. The paper looks at the most serious complication from coronary artery disease, which is the possibility of a heart attack.
From the Paper "Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a frightening name for an all-too common illness. It is the most common type of heart disease and the leading cause of death in the United States for both men and women ("What Is Coronary Artery Disease?" NIH, 2007). More than 64 million Americans suffer from some form of cardiovascular disease, and in 2001, cardiovascular disease was responsible for more than 39 percent of all deaths in the United States (American Heart Association: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics 2004, cited by "Coronary Artery Disease and Atherosclerosis, Health Concerns, 2006, p1)."
Abstract This paper discusses the topic of cardiovasculardisease. The paper looks at how exercise affects the cardiovascular system in a positive way and how exercise also positively affects aging, obesity and the muscular and respiratory systems. The author states that scientists, researchers and physicians complete studies every year on the prevention of cardiovasculardisease, and consistently, these studies show exercise can play an important part in reducing the instance of cardiovasculardisease.
From the Paper "Exercise should be an important part of everyone's life, because it is simply good for everyone. It is well known, even among sedentary Americans, that exercise has a positive affect on the heart and lungs, and it can improve heart health. Many physicians and experts acknowledge that aerobic exercise is extremely effective in promoting heart health. These doctors note, "This would appear also to be the case in understanding the relationship between reactivity and aerobic fitness. One of the consequences of aerobic-exercise training is a reduction in resting heart rate and blood pressure" (McCabe, Schneiderman, Field, & Wellens, 2000, p. 197). Reducing the heart rate and blood pressure leads to better cardiovascular health, and can help, along with a healthy diet, maintain this cardiovascular health throughout life."
Abstract The leading cause of death in America is cardiovasculardisease. This particular disease was responsible for 960,000 deaths in this country last year, accounting for 41.5 percent of all deaths. Studies have shown that exercise reduces the risk of heart disease. Indeed, people who are less fit have between a thirty and fifty percent greater risk for the development of high blood pressure. The paper provides a breakdown of the different types of heart rates and why they are important to fitness and cardiovascular health.
From the Paper "The person who has been inactive for years should always consult a doctor before the beginning of a new exercise regimen, especially those who are middle-aged or older. Beyond this, those people who would like to start an exercise program but find facts and figures about the heart rate confusing should acquire the help and expertise of a professional trainer. These people are trained to understand the goals of their clients and to help them to achieve them in an appropriate fashion."
Abstract In this article the writer conducts an in-depth analysis of the heart disease process. In particular, the researcher examines heart disease and its effects on the young adult population. The researcher provides a comprehensive overview of the pathology of the condition, the effects of heart disease, its diagnosis and treatment protocols. Further the writer looks at the future of cardiovascular research related to heart disease, with particular emphasis on the young adult population. For purposes of this study the researcher focuses primarily on uncovering the pathology, causes and treatment for coronary heart disease in young adults.
Outline:
Introduction
Overview of Pathology of Heart Disease Factors Contributing to Disease Process
Signs and Symptoms
Diagnostic Procedures
Treatment Choices
Prognosis
Future Trends
Summary and Conclusions
References
From the Paper "The pathology of heart disease remains relatively straightforward. The primary function of the heart includes passing oxygenated blood through the body. To achieve this aim the heart relies on the coronary arteries, which passes oxygenated blood throughout the blood vessels in the body. Heart disease occurs when the heart muscle, often referred to as the myocardium, is incapable of receiving adequate oxygen. Typically this condition results as a failure of the coronary arteries to maintain and supply sufficient oxygen to the blood. Arteries within the heart typically are not capable of supplying sufficient blood because a coronary spasm occurs or because coronary obstruction exists within the arteries, meaning the arteries in the heart delivering oxygenated blood to the body become more rigid and narrow. This typically results when fat deposits accumulate within the arteries, a condition referred to as plaque accumulation or arteriosclerosis, and can begin as early as adolescence in many individuals. Fatty deposits resulting in coronary obstruction typically form from cholesterol and a substance called fibrin."
Abstract This paper discusses the impoverished communities in the United States in terms of their vulnerability as a population in relation to cardiovascular care. The paper explains that this population generally does not have health care and for those individuals that cannot be covered by either Medicare or Medicaid, their vulnerability is increased significantly. Major health concerns such as cardiovasculardisease often lead to patients that do not receive care because of the cost and availability of services.
Abstract The paper reveals the alarming prevalence of obesity and related diseases such as cardiovasculardisease, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, colon cancer and hypertension. The paper provides a literature review and discusses the significant implications in terms of the practice of master's prepared nurses.
Outline:
Epidemiology of the Health Problem
Review of Interventions from the Literature
Implications for Master's Prepared Nurses
From the Paper "Physical inactivity has become a significant issue, especially with the concern regarding the alarming prevalence of obesity and related diseases such as cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, colon cancer and hypertension in not only developed countries but also worldwide (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). All these diseases are linked with physical inactivity depending on the disease. For example, obesity, cardiovascular disease and Type 2 diabetes mellitus are linked to physical inactivity in that calorie expenditure does not exceed caloric intake."
Abstract The number of existing cases of high blood pressure is nearly 40% higher in blacks than in whites and its effects are more frequent and severe in this population. Recent emphasis on racial/ethnic health disparities in the field of public health has led to a call for the development of socio-ecological approaches toward the elimination of cardiovasculardisease disparities, however solutions to the problem are typically directed at health behavior change. This paper examines policies addressing hypertension disparities enacted at the federal level during the last five years, provides an overview of the problem definitions and solutions framed to set the agenda for these policies, explores the role of key policy actors in setting the policy agenda for the reduction of hypertension disparities, and makes recommendations for a different problem definition (less individualistic) with plausible solutions.
From the Paper "African Americans are disproportionately burdened with disease morbidity and mortality associated with hypertension.1 The existence of these racial disparities warrants public health policy attention for two reasons: first, the constitution delegates the "responsibility to protect and promote the welfare of the public" to the government (Scutchfield & Keck, 1997) and the existence of these disparities suggests that the welfare of some citizens is not being protected; second, the ethical framework for public policy development, which includes the egalitarian perspective of justice, holds that "everyone should have equal access to both the benefits and burdens arising from the pursuit of health" (Longest 1998); however, current research on disparities highlights inequalities in access to employment, education, housing, and healthcare as underlying reasons for gaps in health status (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2000; Ren & Amick, 1996; Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999)."
