Abstract
This essay examines the psychological characteristics and psychosocial factors associated with, or causative of, cardiovascular disease. The essay also addresses some models like the cardio reactivity model, psychoneuroimmunology, the role of the sympathetic nervous system in cardiovascular disease, and the HPA axis. The association of certain psychosocial risk factors such as depression leading to medical non-compliance is also dealt with.

Outline:
Introduction
Psychological Factors Associated With or Causative of Cardiovascular Disease
Psychosocial Factors
Cardio Reactivity Model
Psychoneuroimmunology
The Involvement of the Sympathetic Nervous System
The HPA Axis
Association of Psychosocial Risk Factors with Certain Health Behaviors
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"Psychological risk factors for coronary syndromes belong to three categories. These include: chronic, episodic, and acute psychological risk factors (Kop, 1999). Chronic psychological risk factors (like hostility) lead to a gradual progression of coronary artery disease. The temporal relation to coronary syndrome is 10 years and the associated cardiovascular risks include hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and increased sympathetic activation. The pathophysiology involves sympathetic activity and elevated lipids. The primary pathological result is atherosclerosis (Kop, 1999).
"Psychological risk factors, which occur episodically (like exhaustion) have a duration, which lasts from few months to two years and can occur again. The temporal relation to coronary syndrome is 2 years and the associated cardiovascular risks include increased blood clotting and inflammation, and a shift of sympatho-vagal balance. The pathophysiology involves sympatho-vagal imbalance, neurohormonal changes, and a procoagulant state. The primary pathological result is altered homeostasis (Kop, 1999)."

Tags:cardiovascular, coronary, stroke, hypertension, artery, congenital, rheumatic, thrombosis, pulmonary, embolism, heart, failure, exercise, smoking, sedentary, diet, chronic, episodic, acute, stressors, depression, maladaptation

Abstract
The paper relates that cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death across all Western nations and is most prevalent among those with lower socio-economic status. The paper looks at how studies have indicated that 60% to 95% of coronary heart disease can be attributed to certain behaviors such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking, unfavorable cholesterol profile, and physical activity (Kivimaki, Lawlor, Smith, Kouvonen, Virtanen, Elovainio, & Vahtera, 2007). The apper further reveals that heart disease has become one of the biggest killers of women, responsible for more deaths than "all forms of cancer combined" (Ruskamp-Hatz, 2007, p. 23) and 50,000 more women die from the disease each year than do men; the illness remains a significant health issue for women in the United States with almost 489,000 deaths per year from cardiovascular disease (Ruskamp-Hatz, 2007).

From the Paper
"Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death across all Western nations and is most prevalent among those with lower socio-economic status. Studies have indicated that 60% to 95% of coronary heart disease can be attributed to certain behaviors such as hypertension,..."

Tags:nursing, cardiovascular, women

Abstract
The paper reveals that cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death across all Western nations and is most prevalent among those with lower socio-economic status. The paper also relates that studies have indicated that 60% to 95% of coronary heart disease can be attributed to certain behaviors such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking, unfavorable cholesterol profile, and physical activity (Kivimaki, Lawlor, Smith, Kouvonen, Virtanen, Elovainio, & Vahtera 877). The paper explains that cardiovascular heart disease, in simple terminology, is the absolute or relative "impairment of myocardial perfusion of variable duration and severity.

From the Paper
"Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death across all Western nations and is most prevalent among those with lower socio-economic status. Studies have indicated that 60% to 95% of coronary heart disease can be attributed to certain behaviors such as hypertension,..."

Tags:women, heart, disease

Abstract
This paper examines the race-associated differences in health outcomes among African-American women with CVD (Cardiovascular Disease). The paper explains that African Americans suffer greater incidence of cardiovascular disease, and women women suffer cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease in greater numbers than men. The combination of the two: African-American women, suffer greater cardiovascular disease than the general population in the United States. The paper demonstrates that the above statements are true, and analyzes the causes for this discrepancy in cardiovascular diagnosis and care. The paper then looks at both the demographic as well as the socioeconomic and ethnological reasons for the difference in cardiovascular care. The paper also points out that women experience a greater amount of heart disease, and a lower level of treatment than men. This paper examines the reasons for that discrepancy as well.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Underlying Causes of Heart Disease
African-American Women and Heart Disease
Lifestyle, Heredity and Demographics
Differences in Medical Care
Differences in Demographics
Women's Lower Rate of CHD Treatment
African American Distrust of Physicians and the Medical System
Conclusion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"Although death from coronary heart disease (CHD) is declining for both African Americans and white Americans, the rates are declining faster for white Americans than their Black counterparts. According to the AHA, the incidence of deaths by whites from CHD has declined 46% and 40% for white men and women, respectively, while it has declined 33% and 27% for African American men and women respectively from 1979 to 2002 (AORN, 2002). The AHA posited that the lower decline in the death rate from CHD for African Americans was due primarily to heredity and life style habits."

Tags:coronary, artery, risk, health

Abstract
This paper discusses and reviews the article, "Prevalence and Cardiovascular Disease Correlates of Low Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Adolescents and Adults," written by Mercedes R. Carnethon, Martha Gulati and Philip Greenland. It discusses the purpose of the study, the results and conclusions and the limitations of the study's methods.

From the Paper
"The age selection was quite broad, so the study could control for other fitness factors relating to age impinging upon the results. But there is an obvious weakness in using such a large sampling. The population size is so diluted and generalized in its composition that the conclusions drawn from the study may be too vague to be of prescriptive use. To conduct the study, the authors submitted the test subjects to submaximal treadmill testing so they reached at least 75% to 90% of their age-predicted maximum heart rate. Maximal oxygen consumption, or VO2 max, was estimated by measuring their heart rate response to their effort. Low levels of fitness were defined by using percentile cut-off points of estimated VO2 max from existing external referent populations. In other words, the VO2 max definitions of fitness were derived purely from preexisting literature and studies. Similarly, the other physical and laboratory CVD risk factors measured according to standard methods were derived from preexisting literature."

Tags:treadmill, CVD, risk, obesity

Abstract
This paper explains that cardiovascular diseases can be prevented by eating healthfully, participating regularly in aerobic activity, and by not smoking. The paper describes a diet that is heart healthy and stresses the importance of physical aerobic activity and the avoidance of cigarettes.

From the Paper
"Nearly twenty percent of the American population has a form of Cardiovascular Disease. In 2002, thirty-five percent of the deaths in the United States were related to heart and blood vessel diseases according to the Center for Disease Control (CDC). Cardiovascular Disease includes Coronary Heart Disease, atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, and stroke. Some causes for Cardiovascular Disease can be attributed to physical inactivity, unhealthy nutritional planning, smoking, and age."

Tags:fatty, tissue, cholesterol, arteries, oxygen, nutrients, heart, high, density, lipoproteins

Abstract
The paper reveals that inequalities in socioeconomic status can often be traced to childhood deprivation and patterns of upbringing, and, research indicates that several variables can be modified to reflect the changed realities. The paper takes a look at the recent trends in sociobiological research to demonstrate the impact of education, lifestyle, employment conditions (rewards, incentives, stress-free life) and so forth at the biological markers to effect a successful outcome in terms of cardiovascular and health benefits. The paper also highlights several international case studies from both the developed and developing societies toward this end.

From the Paper
"The contribution of socio-economic status to the incidence of heart disease in a number of societies has been traced to several measures of social inequality. Recent studies have explained coronary risk in terms of individual patterns of behaviour and stressful social and psychological conditions. The paper is an update on the socioeconomic variables of low status, childhood and developmental issues, employment hassles and effort-reward imbalance and their implications for cardiovascular disease risk, to assist in the design of an intervention program at the individual, socioeconomic and socio-psychological levels."

Tags:socioeconomic, cardiovascular, disease

Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of mortality in the industrialized world. At the same time, high blood cholesterol is known to be a risk factor for heart disease. Decreasing total blood cholesterol can have a profound effect, reducing the incidence of coronary heart disease by close to 30%. Further, there is a wide variety of research that links blood cholesterol levels to heart disease and mortality. This paper presents a design for a study that aims to add to this body of evidence by investigating the impact of decreased cholesterol consumption on mortality from cardiovascular disease.

From the Paper
"In each facility, 1,000 research subjects will be recruited using voluntary recruitment procedures. Advertisements for volunteers will be placed in local newspapers, community message boards, and clinic and emergency waiting rooms. Subjects will range in age upwards from 21 years of age. Subjects will not be excluded from the study on any medical or other grounds. This wide range of subjects and large sample size will allow researchers to correlate cholesterol intake with a number of other factors, including age, sex, race, place of residence, and other medical conditions."

Tags:medical, stroke

Abstract
This paper explores the literature to determine CVD incidence among Latinos, its causes and its prevention. The paper finds that high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, smoking, diabetes, overweight or obesity, physical inactivity, socio-economic factors and poverty are the major factors to CVD and stroke, and they are all prevalent among the Latino community. The paper also notes that they suffer from a lack of health insurance, health literacy and a language barrier. The paper further finds that the community-based outreach program, "Health for Your Heart," offers an effective approach to reducing the incidence of CVD.

Outline:
Introduction
Literature Review
Method
Findings and Conclusion

From the Paper
"Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the US and stroke is the third. Heart disease and stroke are the major causes of disability and account for increasing health costs in the US. More lives are lost to cardiovascular disease than all other leading causes combined. These other leading causes are cancer, unintentional injuries, pneumonia or influenza, diabetes, suicide, kidney disease, chronic liver disease and cirrhosis. The major risk factors of CVD are hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterolemia, high alcohol consumption, and physical inactivity.
"Latinos observe certain traditional health beliefs and practices, which must be considered in combating an preventing CVD and promoting overall health. They involve the family in the care of a patient. However, a Latino family extends to or includes parents, siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, close friends and godparents of their children. Latinos also observe the tradition of respect, which dictates deferential behavior towards others as regards age, sex, social or economic status and authority. Respect is expected by older people from younger people, by men from women, adults from children, teachers from students, and employers from employees, for example. And they relish personal relationships. This explains why they rely on community-based organizations and clinics for primary health care needs. They prefer providers who are personal, warm and interested in their patients' personal lives. Trust is another traditional value among them. They cooperate with a provider with whom they establish a bond of trust. The provider may then also come to appreciate the Hispanic concept of health."

Tags:health, insurance, heart, disease, stroke

Abstract
This paper explains that hypertension, high levels of cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia), smoking and lack of physical activity are the four identifiable and modifiable risk factors associated with the development and progression of cardiovascular disease and that these factors are especially high contributors to coronary artery disease in the elderly. The paper also examines the factors that make the elderly especially at risk for heart disease and discusses the prevention and treatment of the disease as well.

Table of Contents
Abstract
Focus and Intent
Critical Discussion

From the Paper
"The elderly, those 65 years of age and older, are the fastest growing age group in the United States. "Individuals join the ranks of the elderly population at the rate of approximately 1,000 per day, and that number is likely to increase because the average life expectancy for persons reaching age 65 years is now an additional 15 years." In 1991, There were 30 million persons aged 65 years or greater in the United States, in 1991 and this figure is expected to increase to almost 50 million by the year 2020, approximately 20% of the population."

Tags:health, care, resources, common, cause, death, cardiac, operations, heart, blood, vessels