Abstract
This essay examines the psychological characteristics and psychosocial factors associated with, or causative of, cardiovascular disease. The essay also addresses some models like the cardio reactivity model, psychoneuroimmunology, the role of the sympathetic nervous system in cardiovascular disease, and the HPA axis. The association of certain psychosocial risk factors such as depression leading to medical non-compliance is also dealt with.

Outline:
Introduction
Psychological Factors Associated With or Causative of Cardiovascular Disease
Psychosocial Factors
Cardio Reactivity Model
Psychoneuroimmunology
The Involvement of the Sympathetic Nervous System
The HPA Axis
Association of Psychosocial Risk Factors with Certain Health Behaviors
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"Psychological risk factors for coronary syndromes belong to three categories. These include: chronic, episodic, and acute psychological risk factors (Kop, 1999). Chronic psychological risk factors (like hostility) lead to a gradual progression of coronary artery disease. The temporal relation to coronary syndrome is 10 years and the associated cardiovascular risks include hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and increased sympathetic activation. The pathophysiology involves sympathetic activity and elevated lipids. The primary pathological result is atherosclerosis (Kop, 1999).
"Psychological risk factors, which occur episodically (like exhaustion) have a duration, which lasts from few months to two years and can occur again. The temporal relation to coronary syndrome is 2 years and the associated cardiovascular risks include increased blood clotting and inflammation, and a shift of sympatho-vagal balance. The pathophysiology involves sympatho-vagal imbalance, neurohormonal changes, and a procoagulant state. The primary pathological result is altered homeostasis (Kop, 1999)."

Tags:cardiovascular, coronary, stroke, hypertension, artery, congenital, rheumatic, thrombosis, pulmonary, embolism, heart, failure, exercise, smoking, sedentary, diet, chronic, episodic, acute, stressors, depression, maladaptation

Abstract
The paper relates that cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death across all Western nations and is most prevalent among those with lower socio-economic status. The paper looks at how studies have indicated that 60% to 95% of coronary heart disease can be attributed to certain behaviors such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking, unfavorable cholesterol profile, and physical activity (Kivimaki, Lawlor, Smith, Kouvonen, Virtanen, Elovainio, & Vahtera, 2007). The apper further reveals that heart disease has become one of the biggest killers of women, responsible for more deaths than "all forms of cancer combined" (Ruskamp-Hatz, 2007, p. 23) and 50,000 more women die from the disease each year than do men; the illness remains a significant health issue for women in the United States with almost 489,000 deaths per year from cardiovascular disease (Ruskamp-Hatz, 2007).

From the Paper
"Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death across all Western nations and is most prevalent among those with lower socio-economic status. Studies have indicated that 60% to 95% of coronary heart disease can be attributed to certain behaviors such as hypertension,..."

Tags:nursing, cardiovascular, women

Abstract
"The paper discusses cardiovascular health, highlighting in brief the five basic cardiac systems: coronary arteries, peridardium, myocardium, endocardium and cardiac conductive system. The paper further examines the associated pathologies and NYHA classifications, and the psychological and vocational counseling implications for each of the cardiac categories presented.

From the Paper
"Much can be said about cardiovascular health. As one of the leading causes of death and disability in both men and women, cardiovascular disease must be understood by those at risk, current patients and those in the health profession or allied helping professions seeking to offer assistance. Cardiovascular disease is often a silent killer that can strike without warning. It is often cited as the number one cause of death in men and women in the US. Reyes (2005) states that "at any given time, there are about 6 million Americans with symptoms of cardiovascular disease." "

Tags:cardiovascular, health, issues

Abstract
The paper reveals that inequalities in socioeconomic status can often be traced to childhood deprivation and patterns of upbringing, and, research indicates that several variables can be modified to reflect the changed realities. The paper takes a look at the recent trends in sociobiological research to demonstrate the impact of education, lifestyle, employment conditions (rewards, incentives, stress-free life) and so forth at the biological markers to effect a successful outcome in terms of cardiovascular and health benefits. The paper also highlights several international case studies from both the developed and developing societies toward this end.

From the Paper
"The contribution of socio-economic status to the incidence of heart disease in a number of societies has been traced to several measures of social inequality. Recent studies have explained coronary risk in terms of individual patterns of behaviour and stressful social and psychological conditions. The paper is an update on the socioeconomic variables of low status, childhood and developmental issues, employment hassles and effort-reward imbalance and their implications for cardiovascular disease risk, to assist in the design of an intervention program at the individual, socioeconomic and socio-psychological levels."

Tags:socioeconomic, cardiovascular, disease

Abstract
This paper explains that research has demonstrated that the psychosocial status of the individual is likely to correlate to their cardiovascular fitness. The author points out that positive social roles correlate to a positive status, while negative social roles lead to a lower level of status. The paper uses the Kolcaba Comfort Care Model to identify and promote positive psychosocial development in patients.

From the Paper
"A growing body of data suggests that the emergence and severity of cardiovascular disease is contributed to by the psychosocial status of the body (Barry, 1996). The psychosocial status of the body refers to the correlation of social and psychological factors, and the impact that these factors have - both combined and separately - on the individual's physical status (Barry, 1996; Catherall, 2004). Data suggests that the psychosocial status of the individual has active correlates to the onset and development of heart disease, particularly cardiovascular failure (Drench, 2002; Catherall, 2004). "

Tags:psychosocial, heart, cardiovascular

Abstract
This paper describes the causes, diagnosis and medications used to treat cardiovascular accidents (CVAs), also known as strokes. The paper also gives an outline of the responsibilities of nurses caring for such patients and what is expected of them.

From the Paper
"A stroke or cardiovascular accident causes damage to the brain when the blood supply is reduced or stopped completely usually by the bursting of a blood vessel or the occlusion of a vessel by a blood clot . A thrombotic stroke occurs when a blood clot forms in an artery and blocks the blood supply to part of the brain. An embolic stroke occurs when a blood clot or piece of plaque breaks away in another part of the body and blocks an artery in..."

Tags:Cardiovascular accident (CVA), thrombosis, ischemic, hemorrhagic, antithrombolytics, anticoagulants

Abstract
This paper answers a number of specific questions about the cardiovascular system, some of them structural, but many of them tracing blood flow paths through the body. A discussion of the systemic, pulmonary, and fetal circulations is included as well.

From the Paper
"The pulmonary circulation takes de-oxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where it is re-oxygenated and returned to the left atrium. From here it passes into the left ventricle. The systemic circulation pumps blood from the left ventricle out to the rest of the body where it delivers oxygen to the tissues and picks up carbon dioxide for discharge from the body by the lungs. It returns the de- oxygenated blood to the right atrium. From here the blood passes into the right ventricle and into the..."

Tags:cardiovascular system, pulmonary circulation, fetal citculation

Abstract
This paper examines the race-associated differences in health outcomes among African-American women with CVD (Cardiovascular Disease). The paper explains that African Americans suffer greater incidence of cardiovascular disease, and women women suffer cardiovascular and peripheral vascular disease in greater numbers than men. The combination of the two: African-American women, suffer greater cardiovascular disease than the general population in the United States. The paper demonstrates that the above statements are true, and analyzes the causes for this discrepancy in cardiovascular diagnosis and care. The paper then looks at both the demographic as well as the socioeconomic and ethnological reasons for the difference in cardiovascular care. The paper also points out that women experience a greater amount of heart disease, and a lower level of treatment than men. This paper examines the reasons for that discrepancy as well.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Underlying Causes of Heart Disease
African-American Women and Heart Disease
Lifestyle, Heredity and Demographics
Differences in Medical Care
Differences in Demographics
Women's Lower Rate of CHD Treatment
African American Distrust of Physicians and the Medical System
Conclusion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"Although death from coronary heart disease (CHD) is declining for both African Americans and white Americans, the rates are declining faster for white Americans than their Black counterparts. According to the AHA, the incidence of deaths by whites from CHD has declined 46% and 40% for white men and women, respectively, while it has declined 33% and 27% for African American men and women respectively from 1979 to 2002 (AORN, 2002). The AHA posited that the lower decline in the death rate from CHD for African Americans was due primarily to heredity and life style habits."

Tags:coronary, artery, risk, health

Abstract
This paper provides data to nurses regarding varied regimes of diet and exercise to promote cardiovascular health. The paper presents and discusses three studies in this area. The first study focused the ability of on lifestyle interventions to improve coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors; the second study focused on whether protein, carbohydrates or unsaturated fats were most successful at reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease; the third study examined the effect of a Mediterranean diet on risk factors of early hypertension and other cardiovascular health symptoms. After discussing each study the paper concludes these studies, and studies like them, can provide the data necessary to make recommendations but the nurses relationship with the patient is the most important factor in promoting good health.

From the Paper
"The knowledge is invaluable to those nurses who are not afraid to pursue it. Especially beneficial is the study's statement that "these data demonstrate that long-term CHD risk factors are reversible in obese older adults; lifestyle therapy can improve or normalize the metabolic risks of CHD in older adults, as has been shown in young and middle-aged adults" (pg. 1320). Speaking on these benefits does no harm to the patients, instead it (at the very least) provides the patient(s) with an opportunity to take charge of their own lives and lifestyles.
"A separate study provided additional data that would also be beneficial to patients suffering from cardiovascular disease (CVD). This specific study was initiated with the purpose of discovering which macronutrient (protein, carbohydrate or unsaturated fat) works the best at lowering CVD. The study reiterated the belief that dietary recommendations lower blood pressure and improve serum lipids. The reason for lowering these two items is that they are both primary determinants of CVD risk. Each of the macronutrients studied showed signs of lowering the levels of these determinants, what the study wished to ascertain was which macronutrient was actually the most beneficial to the largest number of participants. The setting for the study was to compare the effects that a diet heavily favored to each of the three macronutrients would be introduced. Those three diets focused on three approaches; a high protein diet, a high carbohydrate diet and a high monounsaturated fat diet."

Tags:heart disease, obesity, diet exercise lifestyle

Abstract
Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of mortality in the industrialized world. At the same time, high blood cholesterol is known to be a risk factor for heart disease. Decreasing total blood cholesterol can have a profound effect, reducing the incidence of coronary heart disease by close to 30%. Further, there is a wide variety of research that links blood cholesterol levels to heart disease and mortality. This paper presents a design for a study that aims to add to this body of evidence by investigating the impact of decreased cholesterol consumption on mortality from cardiovascular disease.

From the Paper
"In each facility, 1,000 research subjects will be recruited using voluntary recruitment procedures. Advertisements for volunteers will be placed in local newspapers, community message boards, and clinic and emergency waiting rooms. Subjects will range in age upwards from 21 years of age. Subjects will not be excluded from the study on any medical or other grounds. This wide range of subjects and large sample size will allow researchers to correlate cholesterol intake with a number of other factors, including age, sex, race, place of residence, and other medical conditions."

Tags:medical, stroke