Abstract This paper discusses that concerns have been raised about a rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The paper explains that the issue has been examined using climate models, such as the one called EDGCM based on a 120 year long model run, starting in 1985 with an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The paper relates that a global climate model such as this allows for a study of climates in the past present and future.
From the Paper "Such computer-driven models are one of the primary tools now used in climate research. The EDGCM model also serves as a learning tool for students and provides data to the public in a more easily-accessed manner than is true of some other models ("EDGCM: The Project" paras. 1-3)."
Abstract This paper explains that numerous factors account for variations of global patterns of carbon accumulation. The author points out that some of these factors are climate, precipitation, cultivation, degree of irrigation,and altitude. The paper relates that also very significant, especially for tropical and temperate forests, are the measurement standards applied.
From the Paper "Numerous factors account for variations of global patterns of carbon accumulation. Among those factors are climate, soil texture, soil cultivation, amount of nitrogen in soils, and the interaction of altitude and precipitation. Also very significant especially for tropical and temperate forests are the standards applied; not only do these studies use differing measurements depending on the ecosystem, but variations in measurements must often be used within a single ecosystem because of forest floor diversity (Schlesinger, 1977). One factor is geomorphological and/or hydrological instability in swamp and marsh, especially when edged by tree growth."
Abstract This paper explores the concepts of carbon and ecological neutrality, the ecological footprint and the carbon footprint. The paper first explains how these concepts are measured. The paper then discusses solutions to reduce the levels of carbon emissions while decreasing mankind's overall ecological footprint.
Outline:
Carbon Neutral and the Footprint of Humanity
The Carbon and Ecological Footprint
Solutions to Reduce the Damage to the Environment
From the Paper "The concept of being carbon neutral means to not damage the environment through Co2 emissions, which may be accomplished in two ways. One is to do absolutely no polluting; however in modern society this is not particularly possible, with the other being to match destruction with reduction, thus balancing things out. This concept however is founded upon the concepts of the footprints made by humanity. The human race is a population of consumers in every sense. All opportunities to utilize something towards progress or profit are capitalized upon. The earth as well as the population is harvested for its value, taking it and placing it upon the open market in the endless pursuit of capital generation. In tandem with this mass consumption is also heavy waste, as not all resources are infinite, and particular ways of life are not geared towards conservation."
Abstract This paper attempts to show how, by analyzing greenhouse gas uptake via measuring the trunks of different ages of tree stands, an estimate of carbon content can be derived. It looks at how the amount of carbon dioxide present helps to determine the success of the regeneration of deforested areas and the effects of mitigating global warming. It tests the difference in carbon accumulation in different age stands of trees to see which is most helpful in carbon accumulation and aiding in the fight against global warming.
Outline
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
From the Paper "The data we collected is vital to the reduction of greenhouse gases and necessary decrease of global warming in this day and age. Awareness is key to this situation due to the fact that roughly 25% of annual greenhouse gas emissions from human activities come from the United States (Rubin et al, 1992). By knowing the proper means of reduction of carbon emissions, one can contribute to the conservation of the planet, and live a healthier lifestyle. Maintaining healthy young forests is crucial to reducing the effects of emissions. Carbon uptake is strongest in trees before 50 years of age. Therefore, deforestation and reforestation techniques are important in the window of time after this stage. By clearing out forests and planting new trees, carbon mitigation will increase again over the next period of 50 years."
A paper which discusses the issue of global warming and explores the reasons behind the argument that carbon dioxide emissions are most likely the cause of the global warming.
Abstract A paper which examines the arguments that refute that it is not accurate to mainly attribute the problem of global warming to the increasing carbon dioxide emission caused by human activities. The paper discusses the issue of global warming and explores the reasons behind the argument that carbon dioxide emissions are most likely the cause of the global warming. This paper provides the necessary information needed to support the argument presented, as well as discusses and analyzes the opposing arguments that are given in light of this controversial environmental issue. In the last part of the paper the author contends that despite opposing claims refuting the main argument, increased carbon dioxide emissions are still the primary reason why global warming has been prevalent over the years.
From the Paper "There are significant effects in the health of human beings and the environment due to global warming. Human health is threatened because too much heat in the atmosphere causes certain deadly diseases to propagate. Malaria is an example of this disease, which propagate under local climates (hot and humid climates). Excessive heat also result to respiratory ailments and death. Heat strokes attack many people especially when they encounter heat more than their body temperature can take or adapt to. Environmental elements such as water resources dry up due to excessive evaporation. Climate changes occur when excessive precipitation happens because of uncontrollable conditions in the atmosphere. Different landforms become barren and dry, making it impossible for plants to thrive. When this happens, animals that live in their habitats will leave, and may not survive. All of these effects in the environment contribute to the imbalance in ecological diversity."
Tags: Greenhouse, effect, US, Environmental, Protection, Agency, United, Nations
This paper discusses that, while modern day discoveries of new carbon allotropes are reported, the characterization of allotropy remains ambiguous as the definition of what constitutes an allotrope is under debate.
Abstract This paper explains that the linear sp carbon of Lagow's proposed length and structure is contradicted by the unlikelihood of such a stable, long chain allotrope, granting more validity to Hirsch's argument against the existence of Lagow's carbon allotrope. The author points out that controversy arises because, while they do not directly fit the definition of allotropes, non-molecular allotropes like diamond and graphite will terminate with other elements (so no longer a pure element) to become stable. The paper concludes that future scientific work in this area is required to determine a true carbon sp allotrope of usable stability, if one exists, but at this time, Hirsch's position remains the more plausible basis of allotropic characterization.
From the Paper "The IUPAC Red Book defines allotropes as ?different structural modifications of [an] element,? with allotropic transition considered the "transition of a pure element, at a defined temperature and pressure, from one crystal structure to another which contains the same atoms but which has different properties". This definition excludes ozone and oxygen, and does not discuss the classification of carbon allotropes, which can be examined on the basis of the hybridization of their valence orbitals. More modern definitions include the classification of tin where one allotrope is a covalently bonded solid and the other a metal, and differentiate between allotropic molecules, such as dioxygen, infinite covalent solids, like diamond, and infinite, covalently bonded layers with weak intermolecular forces, as seen with graphite. There are also materials that crystallize where the covalent bonding between the elements is unchanged, which are termed polymorphs rather than true allotropes."
Abstract This report will provide a detailed examination of a significant indicator related to the global environment, namely carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning. A minimum of a ten-year data series will be presented for this indicator and an explanation will be offered for the processes that are affecting this particular indicator. Also, a description will be offered of the geographical variability or pattern of the indicator and an analysis will be conducted concerning any changes in the indicator. Finally, this report will describe whether, international action has, or will be expected to, cause change in carbon emissions. 9 pgs. 23 f/c. 12b.
Abstract This paper examines the health hazards of carbon monoxide. It discusses the firefighters in America today, especially those who fought in the 9/11 blazes. The writer looks at the chemistry of carbon monoxide (CO) and why it is dangerous.
From the Paper "Firefighters today face a host of potentially life-threatening situations when fighting fires. Some of these hazards can be minimized by wearing the proper clothing and having the right training so they avoid such things as collapsing walls. In addition, one very real risk is the wide range of toxic agents, both natural and man-made, released into the air, as flammable materials burn. One dangerous substance released in virtually all fires is carbon monoxide (CO), devices that prevent the inhalation of carbon monoxide have to be part of every firefighter's gear."
Abstract This paper explains that, while many poisonous vapors may be present during a fire, carbon monoxide has characteristics that make it particularly dangerous because it causes oxygen deprivation. This author suggests that the solution for firefighters is a piece of equipment called a SCBA (self-contained breathing apparatus), which includes a face mask, bottled air supply, a regulator to control pressure, and a harness to carry the apparatus on the firefighter's back. The paper stresses that fire departments must replace all their breathing apparatus at once so they are standardized, and every firefighter has the same level of protection.
From the Paper "When SCBA devices were first developed, they were sold as units. Today, however, most departments buy each piece of apparatus separately. This means that each firefighter has his or her own face mask, which reduces the chance of contagious illnesses being spread because multiple users used the same mask while one of them was coming down with something. In addition, departments need to buy extra masks in case masks get damaged. They also need extra bottles, because one bottle per firefighter may not be enough air, making a bottle exchange necessary. This makes it even more important that components be compatible with one another."
Abstract This paper explores the topic of carbon trading. The writer examines whether corporate carbon trading can effectively save the rainforest. Within that context, the author explores current environmental law and argues that they will lead to a demand on businesses to reduce or offset their CO2 emissions. The writer discusses the difficulty that many businesses will have complying with the law and restrictions. In addition, the environmental damage will increase which will in turn make for stricter laws. The final argument in this paper is that it will be more cost effective to save the rainforest as a CO2 offset than for the rainforest to be taken down for their wood use.
Table of Contents
Introduction
History
Solutions
Making it a Corporate Issue
From the Paper "As the world continues to globalize, attention turns to the planet's rainforests and their future. Ecological groups have pitted themselves against large corporations for years regarding the forest and its value to the planet. Corporations are busily cutting down trees for commercial purposes while ecological groups are fighting to get it stopped because of the value the forests give the world by way of protection of wildlife. In recent years a new development has made the argument about conservation more valuable than ever. Carbon trading is a growing topic of debate when it comes to rainforest issues worldwide.
Providing the ability to carbon trade between nations and putting the responsibility of carbon trading on businesses world wide will alleviate future ecological issues currently being faced. Carbon trading is a more efficient and long lasting answer when it comes to the future of the rain forest. It has a longer and more deeply rooted value than wood cutting does because carbon trading does not involve the immediate destruction of wildlife and animal life."
Abstract This paper discusses that coal, oil and gas, which powered the Industrial Revolution and most of the technological advances over the last two centuries, have released enough heat-trapping "greenhouse gases" to change the global climate. The author points out that, even though carbon dioxide is a natural part of the Earth's atmosphere, which captures some of the energy of the sun's rays warming the planet, too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere creates too much warming. The paper suggests ways of better controlling carbon emissions such as not idling a car and driving one of the newer hybrids cars.
From the Paper "However, not everyone is convinced that the danger of global warming is real. For example, MIT meteorologist Richard Lindzen concedes that the planet is warming, and that at least part of the phenomenon is likely caused by burning carbon fuels, yet insists that the resulting climate changes will not deviate very much from natural fluctuations, and states firmly, "We'll adapt." Lindzen discounts the projections based on computer-generated climate models that warn of pervasive and unpleasant consequences if the planet continues to warm, noting that the models predict the current carbon dioxide levels will lead to a three-to-four degree centigrade rise in temperature, but so far "we've seen only a half-degree warming.""
Abstract In this article, the writer first explains that global warming is the increase in the average temperate of the air near the surface of the water bodies, which in turn result in climate changes. The writer points out that since increased population, fossil burning and deforestation has been on the rise, the mixture of gases in the atmosphere has been adversely affected. The writer notes that it is believed that the major factor in global warming is the emission of greenhouse gases which include; water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and ozone. The writer looks at the causes of global warming and then discusses the related outcome and consequences. The writer concludes that global warming is an international concern that attracts not only the attention of each person but also demands solutions from them since every individual at this generation would want to have his or her grandchildren and great grandchildren live in a wonderful environment.
This paper includes colour charts.
Outline:
Introduction
Causes of Global Warming
Outcome of Global Warming
The Atmosphere
Oceans and Seas
Land
Ice
Measurement of Global Warming
Carbon Dioxide Concentrations
Greenhouse Effect
Effects on Island Nation
Increased Temperatures
Sea Level Rise
Ocean Water PH
Extreme Weather Effects
Oceanic Circulation
Economic Effects
Environmental Impacts
Legal Address on Global Warming
How to Manage Global Warming
Conclusion
From the Paper "The most immediate consequence of high temperatures is an increase in the sea level at our oceans and seas. Precipitation is usually increased when the local temperatures rise triggering an increase in the evaporation rate. When this evaporation rate rises, more amount of water will be forming at the atmosphere resulting in more rainfall which then increases the sea level in a longer term. Also, when the high temperatures heat the water, it expands making it to occupy more volume. As the water in the water in the sea expand, additional water which was previously locked up in the land as glaciers enters the ocean since more space has been created as in the case of Antarctic sheets and Greenland. A glacier is a large sheet of ice that moves slowly. Most of the glaciers since 100 years ago have continued to melt. An example is in the island of Montana at the Montana Glacier National Park and researchers have concluded that it is due to global warming. Melting of glaciers also result in an increase in the sea level. In the past, every shore received two high tides and two low tides daily. But today, the high tides have increased in number making way for high waves and winds."
Abstract A paper which explains the beginning of radioactive dating - a process which can give scientists the age of rocks and other materials and help us to identify when Earth began. The paper explores the progression of this method and its uses today, as well as discusses different methods that are used, other than carbon-12, such as potassium or argon dating.
From the Paper "Many view radioactivity as the end of the world in the event of a nuclear war. With its astonishing power, radioactivity could perhaps destroy and thus end the world. What many don't know about radioactivity is that is has the potential to tell scientists the age - or the beginning - of the Earth. Quite ironically, radioactivity could very well be responsible for both showing the beginning and the ending of Earth. A process called radiometric dating can give scientists the age of rocks and other materials and help us to identify when Earth began."
Abstract This paper reviews the article "The little plankton that could... maybe" by Marx, which describes a new proposal to use plankton to fight global warming. The paper illustrates how high carbon dioxide levels cause global warming and that plankton trap carbon dioxide on the ocean floor, which could recreated the ecological balance. The paper questions the theory's feasibility and raises many unanswered questions.
From the Paper "The first question relates to how to increase plankton numbers. The options given involve fertilizing plankton the same way plants are fertilized. Chemicals essential for growth, such as nitrogen and iron, are dropped into the ocean. The article suggests this can be done by ship ?to essentially make up for their negative impact on the local environment.? The question that this leads to, is what impact this fertilizer will have on other sea life."
Abstract In this work, two members of the carbon fullerenes are inspected. One of them is C36 while the other was C28. However, the former is used only as the precursor. By using simulated annealing in molecular dynamics, the monomer, dimers, trimers and tetramers of C28 fullerenes are compared to bulk modifications of C28. The structures, energies, density of states and the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) gaps of C28 are also calculated. The result of the energy gap (0.20eV) of the tetrahedral structure and its cohesive energy (-7.48eV) show that the solid fullerene made of C28 is most likely formed in the tetrahedral form, hyperdiamond. The comparison of the density of states in hyperdiamond structure with that in C28 monomer shows some broadening of levels, however all the features in the DOS of hyperdiamond could be traced to features in the DOS of the isolated C28 cluster. It agrees with the proposition of Kroto [6] that C28 should behave as a carbon superatom with four preferred active sites.
Table of Contents
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Computational details
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 C36 Fullerene
3.1.1 C36 Monomer
3.1.2 C36 Dimers
3.1.3 C36 Trimers
3.1.4 C36 Tetramers, rings and polymers
3.1.5 The proposed structure of C36 solid
3.2 C28 Fullerene
3.2.1 C28 Monomer
3.2.2 C28 Dimers
3.2.3 C28 Trimers
3.2.4 C28 Tetramers, rings and polymers
3.2.5 The proposed structure of C28 solid
3.3 General characteristics on the proposed C28 solid and its significance
4. Conclusion
References
Paper size 4M
From the Paper "Science and technology related to carbon fullerenes have attracted the attention and research interest of numerous of scientists over the past decade. Many scientific investigations have been carried out after the discovery of Buckminster fullerenes (BF, C60). However, the mechanism of the formation of the fullerenes from carbon vapour is still a mystery. Only a few pure fullerene solids have been obtained beyond C60 [1]."
