Abstract This extensive paper examines a number of issues related to African-American women and breast cancer, with an emphasis on detection, treatment and survival. The paper gives a brief overview of cancer, the breast and types of breast cancers. The author then describes the purpose of this study, which was to determine the impact of racial disparity on breast cancer survival. The study also addresses socio-economic factors, such as lack of health insurance, and low incomes. The study attempts to identify the reasons why African-American women have a higher mortality rate than all other ethnic groups. Finally, the author questions whether education, community out-reach programs, resources would influence the probability of reducing breast cancer mortality rates among African-American women.
Outline:
Introduction and Problem Background
The Breast
Development of the Breast
What is Cancer?
What is Breast Cancer?
Major Types of Breast Cancers Risk Factors for developing Breast Cancer Purpose of Study
Research Objectives
Limitation
Assumptions
Definition of Terms
Scope of Study
Review of Related Literature
Historical and General Background
Possible Barriers to The African-American Women having Mammograms
Existing Studies
Another Study of Racial Disparities in Breast Carcinoma Survival Rates
Methodology
Instrumentation
Statistical Approach
Relevant Results and Significant Studies
Summary of the Literature Reviewed
Findings
Association Between Socio-economic Status and Breast Cancer Survival
Relationship between racial difference in treatment, and breast cancer mortality among the African-American women and the Caucasian-women
Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
From the Paper "The incidence of breast cancer among the African-American women is slightly lower than it is for the Caucasian women. In any given year, 95 out of 100,000 African-American women are diagnosed with breast cancer, compared to 112 out of every 100,000 the Caucasian women. However, the African-American women are slightly more likely to develop breast cancer after age 50 (www.netwellness.org, 2004). Breast cancer is the cancer with the second highest death rate for both the African-American women and the Caucasian women. The overall lifetime risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer is 10% for the African-American women and 14% for the Caucasian women. However, about 31 out of every 100,000 the African-American women died from the disease each year compared to just 27 out of every 10,000 the Caucasian women from 1989 to 1992, but the rate also rose by 2% for the African-American women during the same period."
Abstract In this paper the author essentially talks about what skin cancer is, and how people can be exposed to getting it. He talks about the instances of skin cancer such as people who have a lighter skin tend to have an increased probability of being affected by the rays compared to dark skinned individuals. The paper discusses symptoms attached with skin cancer, like bumps around the head, neck or the shoulder area which might be the sign of a growing skin based tumor. In conclusion the author highlights that instances of skin cancer are growing daily and that more care when in the sun needs to be taken, to prevent the ultraviolet rays of the sun which are the main cause of skin cancer.
From the Paper "Within the field of medicine, there are a whole range of cancers and one of them is skin cancer. Skin cancer has been getting a lot of media attention in the past couple of years primarily due to the reason that it has been faced by many people, especially in the Western world. In fact, skin cancer, in a relatively short period of time has come to become an increasingly common condition. The most common reason due to the increase in the number of cases of skin cancer has been the increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation, against which there seems to be no strong way of prevention. Many people use a number of sun screens (a type of cream) to decrease the effects of this type of radiation from coming into their bodies but at times, this mechanism of protection simply might not be enough."
Abstract This paper provides an overview of the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment for women with ovarian cancer, the fourth leading cause of death among women. The paper discusses five aspects: (1) genetic research pertaining to ovarian cancer; (2) the development of new and accurate detection; (3) physical and psychological treatment for those afflicted; (4) the factor of multiple cancers, along with ovarian cancer; and (5) potential developments to slow ovarian cancer causes.
Abstract
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "The very word "cancer" brings a chill to any woman who has undergone a test and is confirmed to be at risk, or actually found to have a tumor or tumors. As long as various aspects of research- from hereditary factors to genetics to new surgical and chemical procedures are found, there are also bound to be some who feel that their "discoveries" provide a quick fix, without proper substantiation."
Abstract The author of this paper relates that the author of this paper was prompted to reasearch the topic of breast cancer further after her friend had what is termed a 'breast cancer scare'. The paper then defines breast cancer as a gendered disease in which women are led to believe the fallacy that medicine is winning the fight against breast cancer. However being a female gendered disease being investigated by a male dominant medical field prompts the writer to argue that this may not be correct. The paper deals with the approach of cosmetic surgery with the intention of appearing more attractive and quotes examples and experiences of women. The paper states that it is essential for women to be positive and to fight the disease, not to be laid back and accept defeat, nor conceal the fact that breast cancer exists and realize that to hide it under beauty concepts may be fatal.
From the Paper "Recently, a close friend of mine had what is termed a "breast cancer scare". Following a routine mammogram, she was scheduled to have a suspicious lump removed from one of her breasts. During the wait for the surgery, and then the wait for the pathology report, we all reassured her as much as we could. We told her the things we have read and heard in the media, such as "Breast cancer's not such a big deal any more;" "Providing they catch it early, they can cure it;" "Almost no women die from breast cancer any more." And so on. And I, for one, believed it. It turned out that her lumps were not malignant, for which we are all deeply grateful. However, the incident caused me to wonder whether what we were saying was really true. Has the situation with regard to breast cancer really changed? Is it no longer the killer scourge that women used to fear so much? I did some research - and was shocked by the answers I found. As Batt (2002) puts it, "the overall mortality rate from carcinoma of the breast remains static" (p. 110). This of course begs the question: why are we being encouraged to believe that science is winning the fight against breast cancer, if this is not in fact true? As I will argue in this essay, the answer seems to have much to do with the fact that breast cancer is a gendered disease."
Abstract This paper answers some questions regarding cancer and its treatment. The paper discusses the pros and cons of radiation, chemotherapy and biological treatments in treating cancer. The paper also provides a nursing diagnoses for acute lymphocytic leukemia, explains neutropenic precautions, lists psychological interventions for anxiety related to diagnosis with cancer, and suggests counseling for families of cancer patients.
From the Paper "Radiation treatment for cancer is either delivered externally to the cancer site by machine or delivered through the implantation of radioactive material directly at the cancer site. It is sometimes used to shrink tumors prior to surgery but is used most often after surgery to kill any tumor cells which may remain. The damage from radiation is usually localized though it can be destructive to surrounding tissues it passes through. Also, with large tumors oxygen-lacking cells in the center are not dividing as rapidly and so will..."
Abstract This paper researches the processes of colorectal cancer screening in African-American women and discusses serious issue of the the lack of utilization among African-American women aged 50 and older of colorectal screening implements.
Articles:
Colon Cancer Screening in African American Women
Elderly African American Women's Knowledge and Belief About Colorectal Cancer Colon Cancer Screening Among Older Caregivers
From the Paper "The sample size selected represents the sample most relevant in this case, as comprehensive information was gathered from previous studies directing the researcher to the correct sample size and population demographics for this particular study. The researchers make logical conclusions and the study presents multiple implications for future research in the health care arena. The research conclusions may apply to multiple patients facing educational barriers to healthcare screening and treatment. This research suggests that nursing practice would benefit by understanding the needs of divergent populations and accommodating their educational and informational needs accordingly. Knowledge about a particularly groups beliefs and concerns that may prevent adequate treatment can help guide nursing protocols and patient delivery in the future. "
Abstract This paper begins with the pathological classification of breast cancer and a description of its various types and stages. The author explains that the type of treatment and prognosis of the disease varies with the staging of breast cancer, and that in general, the treatment may include: mastectomy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy and endocrine therapy. The author discusses several of the side effects of breast cancer treatment, including postoperative infection, lymphedema, hair loss, fatigue, and nausea and vomiting. Adequate patient education and psychosocial support are vital components of nursing care, although the nursing assessment may vary according to the different phases of treatment and depending on individual criteria. The paper concludes that alternative medicine is also increasingly being considered in the management of breast cancer.
From the Paper "Intraductal carcinoma represents about 5% of breast carcinomas. The neoplastic cells either assume a glandular pattern or piles up within the ducts as irregular excrescences. Continued proliferation eventually fills the ducts with compressed tumor cells. Clinically, they present as a palpable mass or as ropy cords within the breast. Eventually, the ducts are filled with cheesy necrotic tumor tissue. This cheesy necrotic tissue can be extruded with slight pressure when the ducts are transected (therefore called comedocarcinoma) About 70 % of these tumors become invasive."
Abstract This case study essay first gives an overview of the patient's pertinent history and medical information. The paper then discusses the clinical diagnosis of the cancer and examines the anatomy of the prostate. Also discussed, are the pathology of prostate cancer, the role of imaging modalities in its diagnosis, its treatment, and prognosis. This paper also includes illustrations to accompany the data.
Table of Contents:
Case History
Clinical Diagnosis
Anatomy
MRI & CT Images of Normal Prostate and Prostatic Cancer Pathology
Role of Imaging Modalities in the Diagnosis
1. Distant Staging
a. Radionuclide bone scan
b. Computerized tomography
2. Local Staging
Treatment
1. Surgery
a. Pelvic lymphadenectomy
b. Radical prostatectomy
c. Transurethral resection of the prostate
2. Radiation therapy
3. Hormone therapy
4. New types of treatment
a. Cryosurgery
b. Chemotherapy
c. Biologic therapy
d. High-intensity focused ultrasound
Prognosis of Prostate Cancer Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRSI) "is an MRI technique that attempts to identify cancer through the assessment of tissue metabolites" (Taneja 2004) such as citrate, choline and creatinine. Normal prostate gland contains low levels of choline and high levels of citrate, whereas prostate cancer lesions demonstrate high levels of choline and decreased levels of citrate. The high choline levels in cancer are related to increased cell turnover in proliferating malignant tissue. The citrate level is diminished or undetectable because of a conversion from citrate-producing to citrate-oxidating metabolism. Therefore, there is an increased choline-citrate ratio. Suspicious voxels have the ratio of choline and creatine to citrate at least 2 SD higher than the average ratio for the normal peripheral zone, whereas very suspicious voxels have a ratio that is greater than 3 standard deviations above the normal average."
Tags:cancer, transrectal ultrasound, clinical examination, surgery prostatectomy, Pelvic lymphadenectomy
This paper examines the progress and advancements in detecting and curing breast cancer, while stressing the importance of early detection as well as monthly self-breast exams.
Abstract The writer of this paper contends that education and monthly self-breast exams are paramount in the early detection and successful treatment of breast cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, approximately 175,000 new cases of breast cancer are diagnosed each year and approximately 43,300 people die as a result of the disease. This paper details the eight components of self-breast examinations as well as the effectiveness and reliability of mammograms. This paper also contains statistical information regarding diagnosis and survival rates.
From the Paper "One reason that education is so important is because there are several indications that something is going on with a woman's body that are simply not cancer. Therefore, a woman should be able to discern between those times when medical advice is truly needed and when problems are likely less serious. For examples, skin problems are generally not symptomatic of breast cancer. Indeed, any condition that might crop up on other areas can occur on breast skin as well. Some commonly seen issues include eczema, moles (which should be examined to make certain they're not skin cancer), and cysts resulting from clogged hair follicles. Additionally, nipple discharge can typically be caused by a benign papilloma or dilated milk ducts."
Abstract This paper summarizes three articles on breast cancer. The first article concerns the tumor suppressor gene maspin, the second is about a mutant HDL receptor that inhibits human breast cancer cell proliferation, and the third is about CD47-mediated killing of breast cancer cells through a novel pathway.
Abstract This paper takes a close look at cervical cancer including its causes and symptoms. It also examines the role of Human Papillomavirus in inducing cervical cancer. It then proceeds to study the use of inoculated C57BL/6 murine model to study disease in woman. The treatment is analyzed for its accuracy and efficiency.
From the Paper "In order to fully understand the genetic link between HPV and high risk for cervical cancer, one must closely examine the mechanism by which HPV induces cervical cancer. HPV is in a class of viruses known as adenoviruses, that is, viruses that invade a host and make some permanent change to the DNA of the infected host cells. In the cases of HPV-16 and HPV-18, the virus produces the oncoproteins E6 and E7, which interact specifically with human cellular components p53 and retinoblastma, respectively. The role of p53 in human cells is to guard DNA repair processes and ensure chromosomal stability, and the degradation of p53 leads directly to mutational changes and ultimately to the immortalization of human cells. The gene controlling transcription of p53 in humans is polymorphic at amino acid 72, containing either a proline or arginine residue at this position (4). The HPV E6 protein degrades p53, thereby inducing cervical cancer. Furthermore, it has been shown that the arginine form of p53 is more easily degraded than the proline form, because E6 can bind more effectively to the arginine form of p53 (6). Consequently, individuals with the arginine variation at amino acid 72 would be much more likely to develop cervical cancer. Because the specific polymorphic combination is conserved between generations, the greater affinity of E6 for p53 would explain the genetic risk factor involved in the progression from HPV infection to full-blown invasive cervical cancer."
Tags:cancer, cervix, human, immunology, models, mouse, murine, papillomavirus, research
Abstract Nothing is as devastating as knowing a loved one has cancer. Cancer devastates lives of the patient, family members, friends, and co-workers often creating emotional scars of depression, post-traumatic stress, anxiety disorders, psychosocial distress or other emotional problems as well as the need to face various treatment-related issues.
Abstract This paper reports that one study looks at the tumor suppressor gene, maspin, and how it is deactivated in breast cancer. The author relates that a study looks at how uptake of cholesterol from HDL promotes cell growth, including the growth of breast cancer cells. The paper states that the third study looks at a new method of inducing apoptosis in cells through CD47-mediated Gi protein-dependent protein kinase A.
From the Paper "Abstract biochemical studies aimed at determining the factors causing the proliferation and the restriction of growth of breast cancer cells abound in the literature. In this paper, three such studies are analyzed. One looks at the tumor suppressor gene maspin ..."
Abstract In this article the writer discusses prostate cancer. The writer also examines some of the biochemical research that is being carried out to try and determine the causes of this type of cancer. The paper looks at the oxidative stress on cells and the effects of androgen. The writer discusses NSAID-associated gene protein and some of the multi-drug resistance associated proteins.
From the Paper "Prostate cancer is a disease of aging brought about by changes in cellular biochemistry which result in an imbalance in the pro oxidant-antioxidant balance and in the cellular response to androgen which this brings about. Many advanced cases of prostate cancer become resistant to chemotherapy making the prognosis for those men dismal. It has been shown ... "
