Abstract
This extensive paper examines a number of issues related to African-American women and breast cancer, with an emphasis on detection, treatment and survival. The paper gives a brief overview of cancer, the breast and types of breast cancers. The author then describes the purpose of this study, which was to determine the impact of racial disparity on breast cancer survival. The study also addresses socio-economic factors, such as lack of health insurance, and low incomes. The study attempts to identify the reasons why African-American women have a higher mortality rate than all other ethnic groups. Finally, the author questions whether education, community out-reach programs, resources would influence the probability of reducing breast cancer mortality rates among African-American women.

Outline:
Introduction and Problem Background
The Breast
Development of the Breast
What is Cancer?
What is Breast Cancer?
Major Types of Breast Cancers
Risk Factors for developing Breast Cancer
Purpose of Study
Research Objectives
Limitation
Assumptions
Definition of Terms
Scope of Study
Review of Related Literature
Historical and General Background
Possible Barriers to The African-American Women having Mammograms
Existing Studies
Another Study of Racial Disparities in Breast Carcinoma Survival Rates
Methodology
Instrumentation
Statistical Approach
Relevant Results and Significant Studies
Summary of the Literature Reviewed
Findings
Association Between Socio-economic Status and Breast Cancer Survival
Relationship between racial difference in treatment, and breast cancer mortality among the African-American women and the Caucasian-women
Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
References

From the Paper
"The incidence of breast cancer among the African-American women is slightly lower than it is for the Caucasian women. In any given year, 95 out of 100,000 African-American women are diagnosed with breast cancer, compared to 112 out of every 100,000 the Caucasian women. However, the African-American women are slightly more likely to develop breast cancer after age 50 (www.netwellness.org, 2004). Breast cancer is the cancer with the second highest death rate for both the African-American women and the Caucasian women. The overall lifetime risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer is 10% for the African-American women and 14% for the Caucasian women. However, about 31 out of every 100,000 the African-American women died from the disease each year compared to just 27 out of every 10,000 the Caucasian women from 1989 to 1992, but the rate also rose by 2% for the African-American women during the same period."

Tags:African-American, women, breast, cancer, tumor, treatment, detection

Abstract
The paper reveals that cancer of the throat can be caused by a virus or by lifestyle habits such as a long history of smoking or excessive alcohol intake. The paper relates that when a virus is involved, the prevalence is much higher for women whose cancer develops because of an infection with papillomavirus (HPV), which is the same virus that causes cancer of the cervix (American Cancer Society, 2007). The paper points out that when throat cancer is not caused by smoking and alcohol, the prognosis is good with radiation therapy, and the likelihood of the cancer returning and leading to death is reduced for patients whose cancer originates with a virus (American Cancer Society, 2007).

From the Paper
"Cancer of the throat can be caused by a virus or by lifestyle habits such as a long history of smoking or excessive alcohol intake. When a virus is involved, the prevalence is much higher for women whose cancer develops because of an infection with papillomavirus (HPV), which is the same virus that causes cancer of the cervix (American Cancer Society, 2007). When throat cancer is not caused by smoking and alcohol, the prognosis is good with radiation therapy. The likelihood of the cancer returning and leading to death is reduced for patients whose cancer originates with a virus (American Cancer Society, 2007)."

Tags:cancer, assistive, devices

Abstract
The paper relates that the most common type of cervical cancer is squamous cervical cancer; another is adenocarcinoma1 cancer. The paper looks at how Lippman and Meblnychuk (2007) point out that cervical cancer is marked by a gradual progressive course which can be arrested at several stages. The paper notes that while cervical cancer is not an epidemic in Canada, it is the 13th most common cause of all cancer-related deaths.

From the Paper
"The most common type of cervical cancer is squamous cervical cancer; another is adenocarcinoma1 cancer. Lippman and Meblnychuk (2007) point out that cervical cancer is marked by a gradual progressive course which can be arrested at several stages. Cervical cancer is not an epidemic in Canada, but it is the 13th most common cause of all cancer-related deaths (van Zyl & Wooltorton, 2007). Cervical cancer is epidemic in certain parts of the world and complicated with other conditions such as HIV. Present rates of mortality from..."

Tags:cancer, incidence, prevalence

Abstract
This paper discusses prostate cancer screening based on PSA or prostate-specific antigen. It further shows how results are used to determine if a man is at high risk for prostate cancer. According to the paper, a value higher than 4.0 is positive and indicates the possibility of cancer; it is negative if less than 4.0. The paper also points out the problems with PSA screening, which include the lack of consensus between the American Cancer Society which recommends annual prostate cancer screening and other organizations such as the US Preventive Services Task Force which advices against cancer screening.

From the Paper
"Coverage of PSA Tests PSA or prostate-specific antigen is used for its predictive value of prostate cancer in men. Basically a value higher than 4.0 is positive and indicates the possibility of cancer; it is negative if less than 4.0. (Thompson, 2006). One of the serious problems with PSA screening is the lack of consensus between the American Cancer Society which recommends annual prostate cancer screening and other organizations such as the US Preventive Services Task Force which advices against cancer screening..."

Tags:psa, cancer, ohip

Abstract
The author of this paper relates that the author of this paper was prompted to reasearch the topic of breast cancer further after her friend had what is termed a 'breast cancer scare'. The paper then defines breast cancer as a gendered disease in which women are led to believe the fallacy that medicine is winning the fight against breast cancer. However being a female gendered disease being investigated by a male dominant medical field prompts the writer to argue that this may not be correct. The paper deals with the approach of cosmetic surgery with the intention of appearing more attractive and quotes examples and experiences of women. The paper states that it is essential for women to be positive and to fight the disease, not to be laid back and accept defeat, nor conceal the fact that breast cancer exists and realize that to hide it under beauty concepts may be fatal.

From the Paper
"Recently, a close friend of mine had what is termed a "breast cancer scare". Following a routine mammogram, she was scheduled to have a suspicious lump removed from one of her breasts. During the wait for the surgery, and then the wait for the pathology report, we all reassured her as much as we could. We told her the things we have read and heard in the media, such as "Breast cancer's not such a big deal any more;" "Providing they catch it early, they can cure it;" "Almost no women die from breast cancer any more." And so on. And I, for one, believed it. It turned out that her lumps were not malignant, for which we are all deeply grateful. However, the incident caused me to wonder whether what we were saying was really true. Has the situation with regard to breast cancer really changed? Is it no longer the killer scourge that women used to fear so much? I did some research - and was shocked by the answers I found. As Batt (2002) puts it, "the overall mortality rate from carcinoma of the breast remains static" (p. 110). This of course begs the question: why are we being encouraged to believe that science is winning the fight against breast cancer, if this is not in fact true? As I will argue in this essay, the answer seems to have much to do with the fact that breast cancer is a gendered disease."

Tags:breast, cancer, health, cosmetic

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment for women with ovarian cancer, the fourth leading cause of death among women. The paper discusses five aspects: (1) genetic research pertaining to ovarian cancer; (2) the development of new and accurate detection; (3) physical and psychological treatment for those afflicted; (4) the factor of multiple cancers, along with ovarian cancer; and (5) potential developments to slow ovarian cancer causes.
Abstract
Discussion
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The very word "cancer" brings a chill to any woman who has undergone a test and is confirmed to be at risk, or actually found to have a tumor or tumors. As long as various aspects of research- from hereditary factors to genetics to new surgical and chemical procedures are found, there are also bound to be some who feel that their "discoveries" provide a quick fix, without proper substantiation."

Tags:breast, uterus, cancer, carcinogen, therapy, chemo, treatment, tumors, surgery, genetics, gene, research

Abstract
This case study essay first gives an overview of the patient's pertinent history and medical information. The paper then discusses the clinical diagnosis of the cancer and examines the anatomy of the prostate. Also discussed, are the pathology of prostate cancer, the role of imaging modalities in its diagnosis, its treatment, and prognosis. This paper also includes illustrations to accompany the data.


Table of Contents:
Case History
Clinical Diagnosis
Anatomy
MRI & CT Images of Normal Prostate and Prostatic Cancer
Pathology
Role of Imaging Modalities in the Diagnosis
1. Distant Staging
a. Radionuclide bone scan
b. Computerized tomography
2. Local Staging
Treatment
1. Surgery
a. Pelvic lymphadenectomy
b. Radical prostatectomy
c. Transurethral resection of the prostate
2. Radiation therapy
3. Hormone therapy
4. New types of treatment
a. Cryosurgery
b. Chemotherapy
c. Biologic therapy
d. High-intensity focused ultrasound
Prognosis of Prostate Cancer
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRSI) "is an MRI technique that attempts to identify cancer through the assessment of tissue metabolites" (Taneja 2004) such as citrate, choline and creatinine. Normal prostate gland contains low levels of choline and high levels of citrate, whereas prostate cancer lesions demonstrate high levels of choline and decreased levels of citrate. The high choline levels in cancer are related to increased cell turnover in proliferating malignant tissue. The citrate level is diminished or undetectable because of a conversion from citrate-producing to citrate-oxidating metabolism. Therefore, there is an increased choline-citrate ratio. Suspicious voxels have the ratio of choline and creatine to citrate at least 2 SD higher than the average ratio for the normal peripheral zone, whereas very suspicious voxels have a ratio that is greater than 3 standard deviations above the normal average."

Tags:cancer, transrectal ultrasound, clinical examination, surgery prostatectomy, Pelvic lymphadenectomy

Abstract
This paper begins with the pathological classification of breast cancer and a description of its various types and stages. The author explains that the type of treatment and prognosis of the disease varies with the staging of breast cancer, and that in general, the treatment may include: mastectomy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy and endocrine therapy. The author discusses several of the side effects of breast cancer treatment, including postoperative infection, lymphedema, hair loss, fatigue, and nausea and vomiting. Adequate patient education and psychosocial support are vital components of nursing care, although the nursing assessment may vary according to the different phases of treatment and depending on individual criteria. The paper concludes that alternative medicine is also increasingly being considered in the management of breast cancer.

From the Paper
"Intraductal carcinoma represents about 5% of breast carcinomas. The neoplastic cells either assume a glandular pattern or piles up within the ducts as irregular excrescences. Continued proliferation eventually fills the ducts with compressed tumor cells. Clinically, they present as a palpable mass or as ropy cords within the breast. Eventually, the ducts are filled with cheesy necrotic tumor tissue. This cheesy necrotic tissue can be extruded with slight pressure when the ducts are transected (therefore called comedocarcinoma) About 70 % of these tumors become invasive."

Tags:glandular, ulceration, pectoral, anti-cancer, alopecia, stressor, assessment, vascular, intervention

Abstract
This paper researches the processes of colorectal cancer screening in African-American women and discusses serious issue of the the lack of utilization among African-American women aged 50 and older of colorectal screening implements.

Articles:
Colon Cancer Screening in African American Women
Elderly African American Women's Knowledge and Belief About Colorectal Cancer
Colon Cancer Screening Among Older Caregivers

From the Paper
"The sample size selected represents the sample most relevant in this case, as comprehensive information was gathered from previous studies directing the researcher to the correct sample size and population demographics for this particular study. The researchers make logical conclusions and the study presents multiple implications for future research in the health care arena. The research conclusions may apply to multiple patients facing educational barriers to healthcare screening and treatment. This research suggests that nursing practice would benefit by understanding the needs of divergent populations and accommodating their educational and informational needs accordingly. Knowledge about a particularly groups beliefs and concerns that may prevent adequate treatment can help guide nursing protocols and patient delivery in the future. "

Tags:health, internal, colon, screening, cancer

Abstract
This paper answers some questions regarding cancer and its treatment. The paper discusses the pros and cons of radiation, chemotherapy and biological treatments in treating cancer. The paper also provides a nursing diagnoses for acute lymphocytic leukemia, explains neutropenic precautions, lists psychological interventions for anxiety related to diagnosis with cancer, and suggests counseling for families of cancer patients.

From the Paper
"Radiation treatment for cancer is either delivered externally to the cancer site by machine or delivered through the implantation of radioactive material directly at the cancer site. It is sometimes used to shrink tumors prior to surgery but is used most often after surgery to kill any tumor cells which may remain. The damage from radiation is usually localized though it can be destructive to surrounding tissues it passes through. Also, with large tumors oxygen-lacking cells in the center are not dividing as rapidly and so will..."

Tags:cancer, neurropenia, nursing, biological, chemotherapy radiation