Abstract
The writer looks at how the concept of a camera and film has evolved and been transformed over the years. In this paper, the writer examines the workings of a digital camera. The article includes relevant illustrations. The writer also considers the benefits of digital cameras over film cameras.

From the Paper
"Cameras of all kinds-still video film digital-have become so ubiquitous that Americans seemingly take them for granted. Once cumbersome to the point that taking a photograph required subjects to sit still for several minutes, today's cameras have progressed to the point that they exist in cellular phones. Despite the fact that digital and film cameras are both called cameras they use significantly different technology to capture images. This research considers how film cameras evolved into digital cameras and the advantages associated with the ... "

Tags:photography, technology, cameras, digital camera

Abstract
The paper looks at the history of and innovations in photography. The paper describes the first camera obscura, the development in photography processes and the production of Kodak cameras. The paper also discusses the inventions of color photography, slide film, instant photos, compact cameras and digital cameras. The paper provides a timeline of the evolution of photography and then looks at new and imaginative schemes of image creations, such as pinhole cameras, x-rays to cut through objects and photograms.

Outline:
Abstract
History and Innovations of Photography and the Camera
The World's Firsts in Photography
Potentials/Projections of Digital Photography
Alternative Processes and Techniques

From the Paper
"Photography has gone a long way in recording and visualizing natural phenomena, with the camera as the device. Both have evolved through the centuries.
"The precursor was the camera obscura in the 1700s. The first photograph was taken in 1835, the first patent for photography awarded in 1840. The first photo advertisement was produced in 1843. Two processes in the early 1800s were by Dagerreo and Fox Talbot. The term "photography" was coined. George Eastman set up his company, which produced and sold Kodak cameras. The cine-camera or color photography was invented. James Clerk Maxwell introduced color photography. Kodachrome slide film was invented and color prints were developed. The instant photography system and compact cameras came forth. Then the first digital camera was created. Other innovations were the first 35mm camera, the Twin Lens camera, and the instant-picture camera. The Polaroid Model 45 was the world's first instant picture camera. Then, the first true digital camera, the Fuji DS-1P, entered the scene."

Tags:Kodak, Polaroid, slide, film, pinhole, cameras, x-rays, photograms

Abstract
This paper explains that the true nature of observation, whether through the lens of a camera or the "All Seeing Eye" of a telescreen, depends on the viewpoint of the voyeur, a situation that clearly plays a major role in both "Nineteen Eighty-Four" and "Camera Lucida". The paper points out that Barthes' camera lucida as a mechanical device also projects an image onto a flat surface, much like Orwell's electrical telescreens that project images through a monitor. The author feels that the telescreen and photography eliminate time and distance through its immediacy and "in-your-face" projections, just as, today, a video camera or internet "webcam" perform the same function.

From the Paper
"For Barthes, photographs were triggers that brought out the inner light of thinking and interpretation. In his book, he discusses the intense debate about images, particularly those related to photography, and their role in the development of cultural theory and history. This is quite similar to Orwell's use of images on his telescreens which projected
not only the images associated with "Big Brother" but also those of the culture of Oceania and the government's efforts to supervise all the activities of its citizens. In Camera Lucida, Barthes offers the suggestion that photographs contain an "aura" which reflects lost memories. He mentions that while studying a photo of his mother as a young child, "standing a little back (and) facing the camera," he accidentally discovered the true essence of his long-dead mother. This photograph, as he put it, was a telescope that brought distance and time into reality while also doing the same for his mother."

Tags:observation, voyeur, projection, webcam, video

Abstract
The paper describes how the Sony Cybershot digital camera exhibits a blend of form and function. The paper discusses the features of image stabilization, various modes, and a built-in microphone that allows the camera to perform the function of audio capture and a zoom lens. The paper also looks at several formal features that are directly related to their functions, for example, the battery and memory card storage spaces that hold those items.

From the Paper
"The Sony Cybershot digital camera exhibits a blend of form and function. Formal elements convey function, and function is communicated via form. The features that the Sony Cybershot shares with pre-digital cameras include all the elements that make a camera what it is: a lens; some kind of viewfinder; and a trigger to take shots. However, the digital camera possess several features that demonstrate the different functions between a digital and film camera. The Sony Cybershot in particular offers user-friendly functions specific to the art, hobby, and science of photography. Moreover, many of the Sony Cybershot functions are hidden, embedded in the camera's hardware and firmware or simply invisible."

Tags:lens, modes, microphone, audio, capture, flash, shots

Abstract
This paper reviews the 2006 film "Pan's labyrinth" and examines the camera techniques employed in this brilliant Spanish film. Through an explanation of director Guillermo del Toro's use of modern technology in special effects, the author discusses the unique film presentation of layering fantasy over reality.

Outline:
The Camera
The Technology
The Simplicity
Works Cited

From the Paper
"The director has demonstrated his expertise and skill through the use of modern technology in special effects, the motion picture camera, and the simplicity of mythology to blend the otherwise separate dimensions of reality and fantasy, layering the fantasy over the reality, to create a unique film presentation. Many filmmakers have moved from fantasy to reality, or vice a versa, but Pan's Labyrinth is a film where the technique of layering allows the blending of fantasy and reality in a seamless way, a layering of the two dimensions, and this is done in simple story way, but employing the complexity of special effects and the camera."

Tags:fantasy, mythology, technology

Abstract
This paper discusses how reflection and refraction produce an image in a camera. A camera depends completely on light to produce an image. The one reason objects can be seen at all is that light rays are reflected from their surfaces.

Abstract
This paper explains that Vertov's film "A Man with a Movie Camera" is radical not only for how it transforms consciousness but also for allowing the viewer to observe how this transformation is accomplished. The author points out that Vertov has an avant-garde vision of a utopia where workers and machines are one. The paper relates that Vertov firmly believed that "the kino-glaz [the eye of cinema] was ideal for revealing the world of ordinary people.

From the Paper
""Man with a Movie Camera" illustrates a truly radical work of art. The film depicts not merely a day in the life of a city but is additionally a study of the art of filmmaking. Not only does the film demonstrate that art can transform consciousness, but the view actually can observe just how consciousness is transformed. Vertov was committed to the concept of the socialist documentary but aligned himself with the futurists. He firmly believed that "the kino-glaz [the eye of cinema] was ideal for revealing the world of ordinary people" (Dashiell 1)."

Tags:radical, transform, consciousness

Abstract
Vertov's approach to film is explored in the various roles presented in his film "The Man with a Movie Camera." First, the author discusses the role of the cameraman in the film. Next, he describes the role of the editor, and finally the role of the viewer. Additionally, Vertov's political and artistic philosophies as intertwined with filmaking are examined.

From the Paper
"In motion picture terminology, a montage (literally "putting together") is a form of movie collage consisting of a series of short shots which are edited into a coherent sequence. Viewers infer meaning based on context; Lev Kuleshov, in his Kuleshov Experiment established that montage is one way of leading the viewer to reach certain conclusions about the action in a film. David Griffith was one of the early proponents of montage, introducing cross-cutting to show parallel action in different locations, and codifying film grammar in other ways as well."

Tags:Vertov, Dziga, Soviet, avante-garde, film, documentary

Abstract
This paper shows that the movie "Citizen Kane" is recognized as one of America's greatest works because it employs excellent work in all fields. Not only is the acting, directing and writing excellent, the production and, most specifically, use of deep focus camera technique make this movie one of the most innovative in history. The paper shows that the filmmaker's willingness to challenge preconceived notions about filmmaking set the stage for more advancements to film making.

From the Paper
"The early signs of deep focus, or pan-focus as it was known at the time, can be seen in Gregg Toland's 1940 film, The Long Voyage Home. Toland was also an innovative producer, looking for ways to create something new and successful. He and Welles worked hand in hand to develop film techniques and strategies that would be wildly successful in the film industry. It was unique because, for the first time, cameras could pick up things that usually only the human eye would be able to."

Tags:1941, orson, welles

Abstract
This paper describes how, while working within the most innovative period in Soviet cinema, before the coming of sound, Dziga Vertov created the film "Man with a Movie Camera", a tribute to the newly formed Communist State, urban environments and technological advancement. It analyzes how in order to create a variety of themes, including those comparing the bourgeois and working classes, man and machinery and the nature of film itself, Vertov uses editing to relate a series of seemingly unrelated shots. It looks at how these shots are comprised of five types of images: industrial construction, traffic, machinery, recreation and citizen-workers. It also shows how he constructs meaning through editing in the film to form an argument in favor of the newly formed soviet state by juxtaposing disjunctive images, but also linking the images through composition.

From the Paper
"The main theme of Vertov's film is a cameraman performing his daily routine in an urban environment, and this meaning is produced through the films ability to show both the cameraman at work and the reaction he receives from the people he films. The entire film is reflexive in the sense that the audience is constantly reminded that film is a constructed environment, designed by the filmmaker. Mixing in shots of the camera, the cameraman, and the editing process maintain the idea that the film is just a part of Vertov's usual routine. The sequence opens with a shot of the cameraman reflected in the camera's lens, continues with a shot of the urban setting in which the events will unfold, and then returns to the filmmaker's "work" of filming traffic."

Tags:working, classes, bourgeois, cameraman, recreation