Abstract This paper explores the construction and meaning of Mary Rowlandson's famous Captivity Narrative, first published in 1682 which tells how she was held captive during King Philip's War of 1675 by Algonquin Indians. The author explains how her autobiographical narrative reveals her religious fervor and struggles, within the context of New England Puritan thought. Within this paper on the Captivity Narrative, there is an analysis of Calvinist thought, and insight into White New Englander prejudices against the Algonquin Indians, and how those prejudices were influenced by a loathing of the Catholic Church.
From the Paper "Mary Rowlandson was captured by the Indians from her home in Lancaster, Massachusetts, during King Philip's War of 1675. She wrote a narrative about her captivity and "restoration" which was so widely read that its popularity lasted for another century and more, after its first publication in 1682. Rowlandson's captivity narrative was reissued in Boston in 1770, 1771, and 1773, and it was also released many more times in various colonies and states during the 19th century. (Slotkin: 1973, p. 96). Thus it became one of the most representative documents by which white New Englanders remembered King Philip's War. But just how representative was Rowlandson's narrative, when it came to the realities of the conflict, on both sides, Puritan and Indian? Having been trapped in the wilderness as a prisoner of war, and surviving, Mary Rowlandson saw herself as spiritually renewed and redeemed. While many of the events in her account are probably true, her narrative is still somewhat mythical and shaped, both consciously and unconsciously, to fit her religious and cultural ideals. "
Abstract This paper expounds on the Calvinist ideology known as predestination, which holds that salvation comes from God and God alone and that our fate has been decided before we are born, and more importantly, before we have a choice. The paper also examines the ideology of religious thought that does not agree with predestination teaching and which acknowledges man's free will and its importance in determining our destiny. The religious philosophy of one of the most vocal challengers of Calvinism, Jacobus Arminius, is discussed and cited as an example of those who claim that man is responsible for his own salvation.
From the Paper "There are many believers who support the Calvinist theory today. Many popular Christian pastors adopt this point of view. For example, John MacArthur, pastor at Grace Community Church in Sun Valley, California, writes, ?Our Lord emphasized that God Himself is the determinative factor in salvation . . . it is God who either reveals the truth or keeps it hidden ? (MacArthur 107-8). In addition, MacArthur also believes that faith itself is a gift from God rather than "something conjured up by the human will" (173). Mac Arthur is not alone is his support of this belief."
Abstract This paper examines the techniques employed by Emily Dickinson in the poems "I Dwell in Possibility" and "They Shut me up in Prose." The paper examines the author's background as an orthodox Calvinist and examines the effect that her childhood religious influences had on her poetry. The essay makes the point that Dickinson's poetry was often a vehicle for her criticisms about organized religion and the role of the church. Both poems are cited within the essay.
From the Paper "The limitlessness of the imagination is symbolized in both poems by metaphors that represent the power of creativity and how it can be spiritually enlightening. By relating the ordinary to the extraordinary, Dickinson shows the power of the mind to see beyond the mundane and find deeper meaning within it. The house in "I dwell in Possibility-" is portrayed as ethereal and divine. The roof is "Everlasting" and it has "Gambrels of the Sky" (7 - 8). The roof is described as being impossibly tall, reaching up towards the sky, symbolic of the imagination's ability to find spirituality within everyday existence. In the poem, she also is figuratively able to hold Heaven in her hands: "The spreading wide my narrow Hands/ to gather Paradise - "(11 - 12)."
This paper discusses the conflicting views of Calvinists, Arminians and Karl Barth about the predestination of humans and then presents Millard Erickson's solution.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 1 source, 2005, $ 44.95
Abstract The paper uses Millard Erickson's book "Christian Theology" to compare and contrast the belief structures of the Calvinists, Arminians and Karl Barth. This includes a brief summary of Erickson's perspective on how the conflicts between these theologies can be resolved. The topics discussed in this paper include predestination, the elect, human depravity and free will as pertains to these concepts.
From the Paper "The Calvinists and Arminians have some very basic conflicting views of the predestination of humans in relation to God, grace and free will. Theologian Karl Barth devised a series of arguments that attempted to walk a path between or perhaps around these conflicting arguments, while still not completely disagreeing with either position out of hand. In this paper, I will discuss the similarities and differences between these three perspectives and describe Millard Erickson's solution to the apparent discrepancies. The Calvinist beliefs on predestination are complex, and are best described, according to Erickson, as falling into one of five basic tenets. These are: "total depravity, unconditional predestination, limited atonement, irresistible grace and perseverance." Each of these concepts is important to understanding their basic belief system, although there are variations in the theology."
Abstract This paper looks at Millard Erickson's discussion of the concepts of perseverance and apostasy in the Calvinist and Arminian theologies. The paper compares and contrasts his presentation of their views on salvation and briefly summarizes the suggestions Erickson provides for reconciling the views. The paper concludes with a personal interpretation of their reconciliation.
From the Paper "The Calvinist and Arminian views on perseverance, that is, the ability of the believer in God and Jesus to retain his or her status of a Christian and one of the saved, vary widely. Perseverance is described by Erickson as the ability of the Christian to "successfully endure all the trials and temptations of this life and remain true to the Lord until death." The two groups' views depend on whether or not a person's salvation is permanent or not, which is to say whether or not a person can commit apostasy, which will be discussed below before presenting some possible solutions for reconciling these perspectives. The Calvinist viewpoint on perseverance is that once salvation is granted by God, which is foreordained and unalterable by human action, it is impossible to lose this salvation or status of being elect."
Abstract This paper explains that, in modern popular culture, John Milton's retelling of the first few books of Genesis, "Paradise Lost," has supplanted the Biblical work itself as a representation of the fall of man and original sin. Next,the author describes Milton's writings about the sexual relationship between Adam and Eve by which Adam becomes unconsciously prey to Eve's attractiveness and about the desire she excites as Eve is seduced by Lucifer. Although Milton may believe in free will as an idea, the paper concludes that the images and metaphors used in "Paradise Lost" question whether he had abandoned entirely all of his Calvinist beliefs.
From the Paper "The reference to pre-Christian antiquity and the looser morals of the gods, goddesses, and mortals of Greece and Rome further reinforces the idea that before their own fall from divine grace, Adam and Eve in Eden existed in a state of hidden sexual knowledge, hidden even to their own conscious minds. Contrary to the Christian tradition that sees sexualized knowledge beginning after eating the forbidden fruit, their later stage of knowledge is foreshadowed in the relationship they have before Eve has the chance to recount her dream."
This paper discusses the history of the Afrikaners, the descendants of mainly Dutch settlers who established the first permanent settlement at the southern tip of the African continent.
Abstract This paper explains that the Afrikaners developed a separate identity, identifying themselves as Africans rather than Europeans, adopting a separate language called Afrikaans, which is a dialect of the Dutch, and developing a distinct culture based on Calvinist beliefs honed by the harsh environs of the South African landscape. The author points out that, ever since a group of native Khoikhois first encountered the white men who had briefly disembarked to look for fresh water in about 1488, the relationship between the Europeans and the local inhabitants had been hostile. The paper relates that the politics of the Afrikaners, based on the assumed superiority of the white people, was an interpretation of the Calvinistic philosophy of a "chosen people", meaning the Boers were chosen by God to conquer the desolate land of South Africa and to rule over its "uncivilized" indigenous inhabitants.
Table of Contents
Background
The First Dutch Outpost
The Freeburghers and the Beginnings of a Race-based Society
Interaction with the Natives
The Afrikaner Identity
The Afrikaans Language
Afrikaner Culture and Society
Politics and Apartheid
Significant Events in Afrikaner History
The Great Trek
The Second Boer War: Oct 1999-May 1902
From the Paper "There are different theories about how Afrikaans developed. One is that it arose as a bastard tongue out of a clash between Dutch (the language of the white settlers) and Malay Portuguese (the language of the imported slaves). However, Afrikaans does not show large scale influence of Malay-Portuguese and has incorporated only a few of its words into its fold. The more convincing theory about the origins of the language is that it gradually evolved from Dutch as a result of the interaction among people of various nationalities who settled at the Cape. It later gathered loanwords from other languages such as English, French, German and some African languages, and adopted a simplified grammatical structure to evolve into a separate language. As we have already observed, most of the early settlers at the Cape were Dutch."
Abstract This paper examines the idea of a society filled with leisure (or work) as has been explored by a number of prominent thinkers since the Enlightenment. The paper also examines social categories such as class, and these categories are shown to be intimately linked to ideas about leisure, technology, work and finally ? to ideas on what it means to be human. The paper looks at Adam Smith's book "The Theory of Moral Sentiments," in which work is part of evolutionary progress; Voltaire's "Candide," in which pursuing meaningful work is the means to salvation; Auguste Comte's theory of an ideal positivist society; Karl Marx's theories of class and production; Max Weber's Calvinistic theory of work; George Herbert Mead's symbolic interactionism; and Habermas' Western Marxism. The paper concludes that while humanity is ill-suited to leisure, technology has provided us with more leisure than ever before.
From the Paper "If the American and French revolutions laid down the political pattern of the modern world, the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain laid down the economic pattern and with this, ideas about what should be the relative importance of leisure and work ? and wealth ? in our lives. The changes that took place in Britain during the 19th century became almost a prototype of industrialization and of increasing leisure, wealth and surplus to a growing segment of society, although not, by all means, to all segments of society. To choose to industrialize (and to not so choose meant risking backwardness and dependence) was to imitate consciously the British Industrial Revolution and so also to buy into a certain set of economic precepts about the role of technology and the purpose of human labor. As with all areas of human endeavor, however, there were often substantial gaps between idealized versions of society and realistic ones. In the case of how people thought that technology and human labor might interact, there were also substantial differences in what people thought that they wanted and what they actually wanted, as we shall see."
Abstract The divide between the North and the South has long been discussed by scholars. Matters such as the individual, God and religion, community, governance, wealth, and wilderness were all sites of difference between the attitudes of the two regions. The paper shows that perhaps no difference was more important as the nation developed than the way in which religion was viewed. It shows that in many ways the attitudes of the North and the South concerning religion shaped each region's treatment of all the other issues mentioned above. By the outbreak of the Civil War, there was no peaceful way for the two sides to resolve their differences. This paper discusses the main differences between the way the North and South states viewed and practised religion.
From the Paper "Those settlers who founded the colonies in the North were usually of Calvinist beliefs. In addition to their belief that all men were inherently sinful, these settlers generally saw themselves as being God's chosen people in the new world. Their sense of collective responsibility was strong, and it was the basis for John Winthrop's exhortation aboard the Arabella that the arriving colonists should conduct themselves "as a city on a hill" for others to imitate (Winthrop 168). The Great Awakening of the 18th century reinforced the idea that the new Americans should have a proper relationship with God. In addition, the spread of Enlightenment thought led many Northerners to examine how they could combine their own intellectual abilities with their religious beliefs to do God's work in America."
Abstract The paper shows that to follow the news since the election of George W. Bush as President of the United States is to find ample source material for a re-examination of the ideas of Karl Marx, Max Weber and Joseph A. Schumpeter. The author of this paper finds that modern America embodies, as no other socio-economic entity, the conflicting struggle of economic and political factions for their competing visions of capitalism, democracy and the concepts of economic democracy that lie at the basis of most socialistic schemes. The paper examines texts such as Karl Marx's "The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte", Weber's "The Puritan Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism" and Schumpeter's "Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy".
From the Paper "Just as Marx's The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte analyzes the Revolution of 1848 in France with a penetrating dissection of the class interests of the various factions, it is possible to describe the rise of the oil cartel to the summit of national political power in the American election of 2000. The reaction of the Democrats, Ralph Nader's Greens, and the intellectual and corporate media to the pro-corporate, anti-environmental, anti-democratic tendencies of the Bush administration provide a parallel to the facts upon which Marx's historical analysis were based."
Tags: Democrats, Paris, Commune, Calvinist, World, Bank
Abstract Mary Rowlandson's description of her experiences being held captive by Indians during the Metacom Wars in17th century New England represent the birth of a narrative genre. What characterizes the Rowlandson's narrative as particular is both the vivid detail of her experience and the ways her survival is woven through the Calvinist doctrine's of New England's Puritan religious communities. The narrative itself represents the sheer trauma of Rowlandson's experiences in a language that appeals relentlessly to salvation discourse and it is apparent that her religious passions sustained her to some degree during her three months as a hostage with the Naragansett Indians. It is also difficult to deny the ways the narrative is written after-the-fact and represents a particular reconstruction of the experience. It is in reading the narrative is a context of post-traumatic writing that it becomes possible to understand how Rowlandson's writing constitutes a particular act of recovery.
Abstract This piece is a analysis of Puritanism. The author starts by discussing how the Puritan religion emerged as a result of the religious and political conflict in England during the 16th century, conflict which the monarchy was unable to alleviate. Then, the author discusses how, the Puritans, who were fed up with the bureaucracy and ritual of traditional Christianity, established a faith built on discipline of faith and the predestination of the Calvinists. After discussing how Puritanism entailed searching for signs that one had been saved, the author shows how some of the Puritans, fleeing religious persecution, established a highly ordered and flourishing colony in New England. The author closes by indicating that the religion eventually failed due to factionalism and a growing desire for personal salvation among its adherents.
Abstract This paper explains Queen Elizabeth's role in the economic recovery of England after a period of economic crisis, describes her leadership skills and knowledge of government, and looks at how this knowledge and talent helped her position England for a period of expansion and growth.
From the Paper "The Elizabethan government faced several challenges because of population growth. The number of the poor grew simply because people were living longer and infant mortality rates dropped. This caused the standard of living to drop and vagrancy became a problem in all areas of life. The most drastic economic change that effected the sixteenth century was a noticeable rise in prices. As a result of this, wealth was limited to the very few and those who were wealth became even wealthier. Rising prices caused inflation. The price of grain is suspected to have risen 50 to 100 percent during this time. (Noble 642) City governments were effected by the shift in wealth. Town councils were dictated by generations of affluent families. This connection caused many towns to become tied to noble interests and resulted in the demise of independent towns acting as corporate bodies."
Abstract This paper reviews two articles by Mack P. Holt and Philip Benedict that explore the causes and effects of a series of events occurring in the weeks after August the 23rd, 1572. Those events would become known as The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre. The paper contends that there are different views on the reasons, responsibilities and consequences of this massacre, but one thing that can be agreed upon is that the massacre eventually claimed the lives of as many as 3000 French Protestants. The paper examines the two authors' similar yet different ideas.
From the Paper "Both authors also confirm that most of the killing of Huguenots and Calvinists was carried out by civilians under mob mentality; often the mob consisted of assisted members of the militia. Holt and Benedict's reasons for why the mob decided to kill the Protestants differ from each other. Holt believes that theological beliefs were the main cause. The Catholics felt the need to dehumanize the Huguenots, as they felt they were not worthy of human-status in the world- they must therefore be treated as animals. He uses one example, "The rights of violence", where ?many participants in the massacre saw themselves as carrying out clerical roles of priests and purifies and magisterial roles of judges and executioner.?2 He discusses how the mob dehumanized their victims and performed what he sees as catholic "rights", like the dumping of bodies into the river, which Holt interprets as the mob's version of baptism2. Also the burning of the Protestant's houses was believed to "invoke additional purification"of all heretics.?2 Benedict however; believes that the mob was driven by the desire for revenge. He feels that the revenge was for the Protestant's actions during the previous decade- during the civil wars of religion. The authors discuss how the massacre spread from Paris to other towns later on, sharing some of the same views and characteristics."
This paper explores the Calvinistic doctrine of free will and John Milton's rejection of it in his epic poem "Paradise Lost" through a close study of the text.
Abstract This paper touches on a number of critical points with regards to Milton's "Paradise Lost". Included is an explanation of the nature of epic poetry and the subsequent hall marks that such epic's are comprised of. Further, through numerous specific references to the text, the paper explains Milton's own views on predestination and his subsequent rejection of that dogma.
From the Paper "Adam's ability to contemplate choices requires special attention, because this theme of Milton's is central to an understanding of man's free will. By way of example, an explanation of reason, man's highest faculty, is provided in book five. Milton, via Satan, supplies Eve with a disturbing dream (4.800-809). Following Eve's recounting of this dream to Adam the following morning (5.35-94), comes an explanation of the separate faculty of reason, and its interrelated expression of free will (5.95-121). To summarize: we are not responsible for the evil that passes through our minds as long as our reason rejects it. Man's many faculties (imagination, fancy, etc.) are subservient to reason."
