Abstract The paper discusses the institution of the caliphate introduced following the death of the prophet Mohammed. The author examines a number of issues regarding the institution of the caliphate: How did it develop? Who were the first four office-holders? What were they called? When did they hold power and what were the important features of each of their rules? The writer supports his answers to his questions with examples from relevant literature.
From the Paper "The difficulties in finding one's spiritual answers were cured up by the establishment of the Qur'an. The Qur'an was looked at as definitive and future answers were able to be found. The larger hole that was left was to find answers in succession involving political and military issues, as Mohammad was an individual leader. He was able to be so independent because he had the word of God on his side.
Mohammad was not looked at as divine or immortal by his followers and his death someday was imminent, but there was not a plan in place for society when the day came in 632. The decision to come up with a successor was urgent. There were callings for the Prophet Mohammad's son, Ali. There was disagreement between old followers and new followers as to who would be in control of the military and political stances, but in the end, Mohammad's father in law, Abu Bakr was named khalifa "successor" of Mohammad. Resulting in new political formations and stances called "Caliphate.""
Abstract This paper examines how the notion of telling a story of deception that reflects one's current situation seems counter-intuitive due to the possibility that, in telling the story, the deceived may become aware of the secret intention. It uses as an example "The Arabian Nights" and examines how Shahrazad's life depends on every story she narrates, on both a momentary and permanent levels. It shows how a series of entertaining stories may allow Shahrazad to delay her execution, but never eliminate its certainty. To live, Shahrazad strives to reform King Shahrayar's view of women as unfaithful, and she accomplishes this endeavor by means of suggesting that anger renders irrational conclusions, like those of the caliph, and multiple repetition of this theme serve only to further propound the message.
From the Paper "The caliph prematurely assumes that his vizier's incompetence in governing the kingdom directly or indirectly causes the young woman's murder. As previously stated, coincidence indirectly causes the girl's death. With that in mind, the young man's story exposes the vizier's innocence. Within that frame, the son's story reveals the mother's innocence. The importance of such situational repetition conveys the theme that Shahrazad aims to suggest, that solutions derived without reason or logic may never be adequate. This implication indicates a high degree of courage on Shahrazad's part. Effectively, in correlating this theme to King Shahrayar's life, she accuses the king of being wrong. The insinuation that a "king of the world" (11) is wrong seemingly harms Shahrazad's reformation of the king based considering that despots usually do not tolerate contradiction."
Abstract In this paper the author examines the trading routes of the Roman Empire and how changes in them led to the rise of Islam. The author pays particular attention to the development of Islam in Africa and how it remains a great influence in African society even in this modern day.
From the paper:
?Islam offered a number of attractions within Africa. Its fundamental teaching that all Muslims are equal within the community of believers made the acceptance of conquerors and new rulers easier. The Islamic tradition of uniting the powers of the state and religion in the person of the ruler or caliph appealed to some African kings as a way of reinforcing their authority.?
Abstract This paper compares the texts of Mawardi and Nizam Al-Mulk and analyzes their contributions to Islamic culture. In addition, the times and the lives of these two great thinkers and the social ambiance that shaped their psyche are examined.
From the Paper ?Al-Mulk drew up a set of protocols for the governance of the empire called the Siyasat Nameh, the two most influential institutions of which were the offices of atabeg, and the right of iqta. Atabegs were military advisers to young princes who frequently ended up usurping the power entrusted to them, while iqta was a grant of the income from land to an official who was entrusted with its running. In theory no ownership in the land passed but in practice large hereditary estates developed. Both these institutions led to a massive decentralization of power and this in turn facilitated and prolonged the factional fighting which characterized the Seljuk period of power.?
Abstract This paper examines the role of Hadith, traditions about Muhammad, in Islam. It clarifies the reasons for the importance of such traditions to Sunni Muslims and looks at one of the most lively and potentially liberating trends in contemporary Islam, the complete rejection of the religious value of Hadith.
From the Paper "The first problematic feature of hadith literature is precisely its casual, anecdotal nature. The hadith collections incorporate a large volume of material about the Prophet which varies from tales which are regarded ? even by most modern secular historians - as almost certainly authentic down to those which are regarded as highly improbable. Although Islamic scholars soon developed a "science" of hadith (riwayat) which seems admirable in comparison to the speculativeness which surrounds debate about the authenticity of traditions concerning Christ, the fact remains that the extant hadith collections date from a period as late as about a quarter of a millennium after Muhammed allegedly died. (I say "allegedly" because it is from the hadith literature itself that the Prophet's life dates are determined.)"
From the Paper "The Islamic state came into being in the seventh century, and the political organizations and the dissensions which trouble the new state had their origins in the Arab background. The Arabian peninsula is marked by deserts and different zonal distinctions. Arabia has long served as a transit area between the Mediterranean and the Further East. The early centuries remain obscure because archaeology has not examined the area as it has in Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia. According to tradition, the Arabian people are divided into northern and southern groupings, and the author discusses them separately. The historical chronology of the southern group is obscure until the time of Alexander the Great. The religion was polytheistic. Society was agricultural, with a high degree of development. The people of the central and northern regions..."
Abstract Few cities possess such a rich, varied and dynamic history as that of Constantinople, now Istanbul. The paper shows that Steven Runciman's history, entitled "The Fall of Constantinople 1453", is a flowing narrative detailing the years immediately before, during and after the "fall" of the city to the Ottoman Turks. Runciman's account is far from being dry; like a novel, the characters exhibit remarkably multidimensional traits. The paper examines how Runciman conveys the fact that the history and fall of Constantinople did not happen overnight and the transition from the Roman Catholic rule through Greek Orthodoxy, culminating with the triumph of the Muslim Turks, was a long, colorful and often bloody one.
From the Paper "Early in the book, Runciman offers reasons why his book differs from other accounts of the fall of Constantinople. His main gripe with common historical accounts, at least those published by the 1960s, was that most historians refer to the fall of Constantinople as the end of the Middle Ages. Runciman refutes this claim, stating firmly that the Middle Ages could not have just suddenly finished in one year; features of the Dark Ages, whether in politics, religion, lifestyle, or philosophy, remained after 1453. Likewise, Runciman notes that the Renaissance was well on its way in central Europe by the time Constantinople fell. Runciman claims that the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans solidified a Turkish capital in Europe, providing a European presence for the once isolated Eastern tribes."
Abstract This paper explains the period in history, known as the Crusades, where Western European Christians led a series of wars against the Muslims in an effort to reclaim Jerusalem. The paper also explains that, while the term Crusades literally refers to the period when the Christians were fighting the Muslims over Jerusalem, it also has come to refer to the general efforts that Western European Christians led against non-Christian religions. The paper also describes the economic and social consequences of the crusades.
From the Paper "The most significant effect of the Crusades was economic (Origins pp). Italian cities prospered, replacing the Byzantines and Muslims as merchant-traders in the Mediterranean as trade passed through Italians to Western Europe at a substantial profit (Origins pp). This commercial power became the economic base for the Italian Renaissance and also encouraged Atlantic powers such as Spain and Portugal to seek trade routes to India and China (Origins pp). The efforts of such explorers as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, helped to initiate and expand most of the world to European trade dominance and colonization, as well as to shift the heart of commercial activity from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic (Origins pp)."
Abstract In this article, the writer examines how throughout Islamic history, Shi'ites developed a denomination distinct in various significant ways from that of Sunnis. The writer explains that the differences between Islam's two major denominations arose as early as the beginning of Islamic history and in fact took place shortly after Islam's fourth caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib came to power. Initially, these differences centered on a political dispute over who should serve as the prophet's successor after his death. The writer looks at both sides of the dispute. Initial differences over political ideology caused Shi'ites to branch off from the majority Sunni Muslim community and form their own ideological viewpoints on various other issues. The writer concludes that Sunni-Shi'ite relations since the beginning of Islamic history reveal that both took divergent paths in regards to the beliefs and practices of Islam.
From the Paper "Initial differences over political ideology caused Shi'ites to branch off from the majority Sunni Muslim community and form their own ideological viewpoints on various other issues. Besides politics, Shi'ites later developed their own distinguished set of beliefs regarding theology and jurisprudence. This meant that they now developed their own understanding of belief in the Islamic creed, practice of the five established pillars of Islam, interpretation of the Quranic text, acceptance and rejection of the prophet's Hadiths, sources of Islamic jurisprudence, and position of the various eminent Islamic personalities in history, particularly from among the prophet's companions. The Shi'ite branch later subdivided into various smaller sects, which hold differing viewpoints about various matters despite sharing some fundamental concepts of the Shi'ite belief system."
Abstract This paper reviews and discusses Al-Qaeda, the terror organization that has turned the world upside down. The paper reports that according to the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), al-Qaeda "seeks to rid Muslim countries of what it sees as the profane influence of the West and replace their governments with fundamentalist Islamic regimes."
From the Paper "In addition to some structural changes to the federal government, the Bush administration also initiated landmark counter-terrorist legislation the most significant of which is the USA PATRIOT Act. The Patriot Act basically extends the powers of the federal government over searches, seizures, and surveillance of citizens and organizations. Although the Patriot Act provisions were designed to target home-grown terrorists, terrorist organizations, cells, and aid groups, its scope is relatively broad. Law enforcement can invoke the Patriot Act without having to first prove any direct connection between a suspect and al-Qaeda or any other terrorist group. The Patriot Act permits the government to freeze the assets of suspect organizations, too."
Tags: Soviet Union, Afghanistan, Islamic Caliphate, Bin Laden
Abstract This paper looks at four scenarios - the rise to power of China and India, the persistence of American hyper-power status, the rise of an Islamic Caliphate, and a "cycle of fear" scenario wherein the world becomes noticeably Orwellian and where intrusive security measures are the norm. The paper discusses which one of the four scenarios is most likely to materialize and why and then examines the theoretical assumptions upon which the aforementioned prediction is predicated. The paper concludes that the world of tomorrow promises to be one dominated by the Asian superpowers of China and especially, India.
From the Paper "The trends and the implicit/explicit theoretical assumptions guiding this writer to the conclusion that the rise of India and China to pre-eminence is the most likely of all the four scenarios outlined above are numerous but easily explained. Most of all, demographic trends are key. This writer operates under the assumption that the country with the greatest latent human resources will eventually win - even if it initially trails a competitor. Clearly, both nations have this advantage to the fullest. Working especially in India's favor is the fact that this nation has not embarked upon a ruinous "one-child" program as has China; consequently, India's population will not age (is not now aging) as rapidly as China's. Therefore, India will cut into whatever human resources advantage China has by virtue of having a relatively younger and thus more industrious population."
This paper explains the nature of Islamic sovereignty, the roots of political Islam, the attraction of Islamism, and the driving forces behind political movements within the Middle East, such as the Taliban.
Abstract This paper explains that a synthesis of democratic and Islamic values is required for a practical and workable form of representative government. The author points out that Islam is not just another ideology; it is a faith and as such can motivate people to act politically while also transcending politics. The paper stresses that political Islam is not Islamist democracy, governed exclusively by Islamic law. The author comments that, in Afghanistan, the Taliban, an extreme type of political Islam, took over and did not lose control until American bombs dropped as punishment for harboring Osama Bin Laden. The paper iterates that political Islam, in its democratic infancy, is struggling to distinguish itself from both the fundamentalists and the Islamists. The author underscores that most Muslims believe that America does not have fundamental flaws; it has just failed to live up to the ideals it so strongly advocates.
Table of Contents
The Evolution and Growth of Political Islam
Islamic Experiences with Democracy
The Future Prospect and Promises of Political Islam
From the Paper "Algeria, in 1989, provided one of the first experiences with Islamic democracy. After years of a socialist-military regime, Algeria's sole political party, the Front de Liberation National (FLN) acquiesced to young Algerians protesting for fundamental rights and political change. In June 1990 the FLN allowed the first open elections to take place. The Front Islamique du Salut (FIS), and Islamic party, came more or less out of nowhere to capture 62% of the vote. The FLN, which could boast of liberating Algeria from the French, captured only 28%."
Abstract This paper explains that the Abbasid and Ottoman empires made use of the glorification of Islam. The author points out that these empires attempted a standardization of language, brokered different relationships with non-Muslims, saw extensive economic growth and continued expansion of the arts, letters and cultural attainment. The paper relates that both the Abbasid and Ottoman empires had the emotive symbols of their respective capitals as political, commercial and spiritual centers. The author underscores that both empires made errors in over-expansion, failure to consistently respect minorities and the use of force. The paper concludes that the result was forever fragmentation when faced by external pressures and the risk of oppressing constituent groups, which tends to affect all empires in the end.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Political Control and the Abbasid Empire
Economic and Social Affairs
Symptoms of Decline
Conclusion
From the Paper "The decline of the Abbasids owed in good measure to the way in which the Shii community had been treated since the beginning. Anti-Caliphal sentiment understandably continued as much the Sunni ulama worked to crate the impression of Muslim unity by way of strong self definition and standardization of law, language, religious practice and political rationales. By the 13th century, the Abbasid Empire was a fragmented collection of states and territories ruled by military commanders. Of course, the Ottoman Empire would also over-expand, its different oppressive campaigns and government by military force creating quiet enemies."
Abstract This paper discusses "The Travels of Ibn Battuta" which describes Ibn Battuta's descriptions of his travel experiences between 1325 and 1354. The paper discusses how, according to the book, Islamic culture dominated much of the 14th Century world because of the Baghdad Caliphate's widespread political and economic dominance. The paper also discusses the content of the book as well as the literary manner in which Battuta described his travels.
From the Paper "Because of the descriptive style of Battuta's writing, modern readers can better understand the significance and implications of Islamic economic dominance in the 14th Century, which inevitably produced cultural influences. Battuta's observations about the impact of trade and mercantile activities are especially incisive, for in land after land he traveled through, trade established relationships between Muslims and infidels which served as a unifying force and as a means of cultural assimilation.
"The analysis of shared Islamic culture that Battuta presented in his book was very methodical for his time and is still of great interest today, for it reveals the vast scope and influence of Muslim civilization in the 14th Century and bears comparison with the vast scope and influence of American culture in the modern world. The accomplished literary manner in which Battuta described how a shared Islamic culture was manifested in the countries he visited provides for fascinating reading and has made The Travels of Ibn Battuta a classic for more than seven centuries."
