Abstract This extensive paper examines a number of issues related to African-American women and breast cancer, with an emphasis on detection, treatment and survival. The paper gives a brief overview of cancer, the breast and types of breast cancers. The author then describes the purpose of this study, which was to determine the impact of racial disparity on breast cancer survival. The study also addresses socio-economic factors, such as lack of health insurance, and low incomes. The study attempts to identify the reasons why African-American women have a higher mortality rate than all other ethnic groups. Finally, the author questions whether education, community out-reach programs, resources would influence the probability of reducing breast cancer mortality rates among African-American women.
Outline:
Introduction and Problem Background
The Breast Development of the Breast What is Cancer?
What is Breast Cancer?
Major Types of Breast Cancers
Risk Factors for developing Breast Cancer
Purpose of Study
Research Objectives
Limitation
Assumptions
Definition of Terms
Scope of Study
Review of Related Literature
Historical and General Background
Possible Barriers to The African-American Women having Mammograms
Existing Studies
Another Study of Racial Disparities in Breast Carcinoma Survival Rates
Methodology
Instrumentation
Statistical Approach
Relevant Results and Significant Studies
Summary of the Literature Reviewed
Findings
Association Between Socio-economic Status and Breast Cancer Survival
Relationship between racial difference in treatment, and breast cancer mortality among the African-American women and the Caucasian-women
Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
References
From the Paper "The incidence of breast cancer among the African-American women is slightly lower than it is for the Caucasian women. In any given year, 95 out of 100,000 African-American women are diagnosed with breast cancer, compared to 112 out of every 100,000 the Caucasian women. However, the African-American women are slightly more likely to develop breast cancer after age 50 (www.netwellness.org, 2004). Breast cancer is the cancer with the second highest death rate for both the African-American women and the Caucasian women. The overall lifetime risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer is 10% for the African-American women and 14% for the Caucasian women. However, about 31 out of every 100,000 the African-American women died from the disease each year compared to just 27 out of every 10,000 the Caucasian women from 1989 to 1992, but the rate also rose by 2% for the African-American women during the same period."
This paper examines the progress and advancements in detecting and curing breast cancer, while stressing the importance of early detection as well as monthly self-breast exams.
Abstract The writer of this paper contends that education and monthly self-breast exams are paramount in the early detection and successful treatment of breast cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, approximately 175,000 new cases of breast cancer are diagnosed each year and approximately 43,300 people die as a result of the disease. This paper details the eight components of self-breast examinations as well as the effectiveness and reliability of mammograms. This paper also contains statistical information regarding diagnosis and survival rates.
From the Paper "One reason that education is so important is because there are several indications that something is going on with a woman's body that are simply not cancer. Therefore, a woman should be able to discern between those times when medical advice is truly needed and when problems are likely less serious. For examples, skin problems are generally not symptomatic of breast cancer. Indeed, any condition that might crop up on other areas can occur on breast skin as well. Some commonly seen issues include eczema, moles (which should be examined to make certain they're not skin cancer), and cysts resulting from clogged hair follicles. Additionally, nipple discharge can typically be caused by a benign papilloma or dilated milk ducts."
Abstract This paper explores the reasons women choose to have breast augmentation surgery and presents clinical research about the safety of the implants. The paper traces the history of this cosmetic surgery, citing its use for reconstruction following mastectomy. The paper explains that ssome women choose to have breast augmentation for cosmetic reasons and discusses the types of implants are considered and their safely risks examined. The author concludes that breast augmentation may have health risks that could affect breast tissue. The author further suggests that more conclusive research is needed in the field to determine if women with a family history of breast disease should have breast augmentation for solely cosmetic reasons.
From the Paper "The desire to look beautiful is inherent and has thus forced many women to resort to plastic and other kind of cosmetic surgeries. Breast augmentation is one procedure which has gained rapid acceptance and popularity among looks-conscious women and in 2004 alone more than 330,000 women and teenage girls underwent this surgery mainly for augmentation purpose while 35,000 had to resort to breast implants after mastectomy. [1] The number of women seeking breast implant surgery has tripled since 1997. [2] But it is not known how many of these women are actually undergoing surgery for the very first time since many of them are those who have had breast implants and sought second or third surgery to correct various complications connected with this procedure. "
Abstract This paper summarizes three articles on breast cancer. The first article concerns the tumor suppressor gene maspin, the second is about a mutant HDL receptor that inhibits human breast cancer cell proliferation, and the third is about CD47-mediated killing of breast cancer cells through a novel pathway.
Abstract In this essay the writer compares and contrasts breast feeding versus bottle feeding. The writer discusses the impact of infant and child's early interaction with food on eating habits as an adult. The writer discusses whether bottle feeding or breast feeding offers less strain to the infant.
From the Paper "In a discussion of eating disorders in relation to food and feeding in infancy and the early childhood years, Brazelton and Sparrow point out that one of the keys to healthy eating as an adult is associated with whether a child's earliest interaction with food was a strain or a struggle. While for any given child what constitutes strain or struggle can differ, Brazelton and Sparrow's remarks bring up the question of whether generally it is less of a strain on ... "
Abstract A critique of the article "Risk Assessment of First-Degree Relatives of Women With Breast Cancer: A Feasibility Study" using the article as a primary source in the discusion.
Abstract This paper discusses stem cell research, with specific attention to therapeutic cloning, and then relates this to the recent scientific breakthroughs concerning stem cell application to breast implants. The paper reviews research; public opinion and embryo stem cell cloning. It looks at reconstructive surgery and plastic surgery.
From the Paper "Stem cell research is experiencing great advances, allowing humans to see a future where diseases of today will not be of such concern tomorrow ..."
Tags: therapeutic cloning, stem cell research, breast implants
Abstract The author of this paper states that he/she has reviewed a brief history of breast implants and has discovered that the history of this surgery is filled with carelessness, misconceptions and misinformation. The author maintains that most women who undergo the procedure are not fully aware of the risks involved. The writer highlights that in fact, many could care less, as the need to look good outweighs everything else.
From the Paper "Sooner or later, everyone finds themselves faced with a medical situation that may require a variety of treatments and the more unlucky of us may have to choose surgery. The first reaction to such a proposition would be fear or revulsion; the prospect of going under the knife is not a pleasant one. One would think that there are few people who would voluntarily submit to such a procedure, but the fact is that thousands of women willingly submit themselves to cosmetic surgery not for medical necessity but simply for the sake of their appearance."
Abstract The paper provides an overview of breast cancer and explains the importance of breast cancer screening. The paper reveals the high mortality rates of breast cancer among ethnic minority groups and proposes an implementation plan to ensure that women of minority ethnic groups are encouraged to go through breast cancer screening. The paper explains the plan's focus on the need for awareness regarding early breast cancer screening, the need for the screening modalities and services to be available and the need for interventions to improve the health care system delivery.
Outline:
Breast Cancer
The Importance of Breast Cancer Screening
Breast Cancer among Minority Ethnic Groups
Guidelines for Breast Screening with MRI as an Adjunct to Mammography
Implementation Plan of the Guidelines for Minority Ethnic Groups
Education of Ethnic Minority Groups regarding Breast Cancer and Screening
Making Screening Modalities Available
Making a Difference through a Change in Health Care Delivery
From the Paper "Cancer is a disease that often has a long preclinical period (Warwick and Duffy, 2005). From the moment a genetic aberration in a single cell occurred, up to the time where cells aggregate and migrate to other distance far from their organ of origin, and the patient becomes symptomatic, the natural development of cancer allows health care providers to detect and treat this malignancy. Breast cancer is no exception. Breast cancer is the most frequent cancer among women. It accounts for 23% of cancer cases worldwide (Wood and Della-Monica, 2006). Among American women, 1 out of 3 cancer patients are said to have cancers of the breast. The mean age of diagnosis is 61 years old. Mostly, 23.3% of women with breast cancer were between 55 to 64 years old (National Cancer Institute, 2008)."
Tags: mammography, detection, mortality, awareness, language, literacy, quality, of, care
Abstract This paper examines how certain genes, specifically BRCA1 and BRCA2 can be used in diagnosing and treating breast cancer. It outlines the possible causes of breast cancer, its symptoms, and treatment. It also discusses the issue of genetic screening, as an ethical issue and how it can help to treat breast cancer.
From the paper:
"Breast cancer is a disease characterized by the growth of malignant cells in the mammary glands and can actually can strike both men and women, although women are about 100 times more likely to develop the disease than men. Most cancers in female breasts form shortly before, during, or after menopause, with three-quarters of all cases being diagnosed after age 50. Generally, the older a woman is, the greater is her likelihood of developing breast cancer. Worldwide, breast cancer is the most common cancer among women, and in North America and Western Europe, where life spans are longer, the incidence is highest."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that today, breast cancer remains the focus of a growing amount of research around the world and new, improved diagnostic techniques, drugs and treatment are constantly improving survival rates. Nevertheless, the writer points out that the incidence of female breast cancer remains unacceptably high in many regions of the country, especially New Jersey. To identify recent trends in the incidence of female breast cancer generally and in New Jersey specifically, this paper provides a review of the relevant peer-reviewed literature and an analysis of the statistical rates by race for the state and its counties. A summary of the research and salient findings are presented in the conclusion. The writer concludes that the the research is clear in showing that virtually every county in New Jersey is considered high-risk for increased rates of breast cancer by virtue of their geographic proximity to nuclear reactors, as well as the potential environmental toxins that go hand in hand with high concentrations of humanity.
Outline:
Review and Discussion
Background and Overview
Environmental Factors
Table 1 - Breast Cancer Statistics - New Jersey
Table 2 - Female Breast Cancer Incidence and Mortality by Race, New Jersey and the U.S. 1989-1993.
Table 3 - Cancer Death Statistics for the State of New Jersey by Race
Summary of Breast Cancer Trends Identified in New Jersey
Conclusion
From the Paper "Other environmental factors may relate to socioeconomic conditions. While the National Cancer Institute and other medical organizations agree that women age 50 years and older should obtain a routine mammography every one to two years, estimates of breast cancer screening utilization show that participation in mammography screening is typically lowest among groups of women with whom social workers often work; that is, older, low-income, rural, and racially and culturally diverse women. Studies have investigated a variety of factors predictive of women's decisions about breast cancer screening, including socioeconomic factors, and to a lesser extent, psychological and cultural variables; the results of these studies generally indicate that older and ethnic minority women, women with inadequate insurance coverage and no regular source of medical care, women that are less educated, women that live in medically underserved areas, and women that report strong religious values, attitudes, and beliefs about breast cancer, are less likely to obtain breast cancer screening and are at greater risk of dying from breast cancer than are white women who are younger, educated, have health insurance and access to medical care, and that do not express strong beliefs about breast cancer."
Abstract This paper discusses breast implants and the risks involved. Social, psychological and health issues are discussed as they relate to teenagers undergoing breast implant surgery. Financial considerations are highlighted as well. Various opinions from professionals on the prudence of this surgery for teens are offered.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background: What is a Breast Implant?
Problem
Purpose of Report
Scope
Discussion
Why Teenagers should not use Breast Implants
What are Alternatives to Breast Implants
Pros and Cons of Breast Implants
Social/Psychological/Emotional Effects on Teenagers
Ethical Issues
Conclusion
From the Paper "For several decides women have been undergoing breast augmentation in the way of breast implants. It is a procedure designed to enhance the size of a women's breast and millions of females have had it done. In more recent years however, the attention has turned to teenage girls. More and more teen girls are asking for surgeons to perform surgery on them and give them breast implants. Brittany Spears, the famous teen idol singer, is reputed to have had the surgery performed several years ago. There has been a lot of controversy over the implants in general. Some now claim that they have become diseased from the implants and that the implants are making them sick. Teenagers are at an increased risk for problems when it comes to breast implants."
Abstract This paper examines how, as more women enter the workforce, the question of whether or not to breast feed becomes a decision of great importance. It evaluates studies dealing with the effect of breast feeding on infant nutrition and development, as compared to the effect of bottle feeding. It shows how breast feeding has gone in and out of style throughout the years, but as research continues, its use has been proven to be overall physically and cognitively beneficial and its positive effect on health cannot be ignored.
Outline
Studying Health Care Costs of Formula-Feeding in the First Year of Life
Breast feeding and Later Cognitive and Academic Outcomes
Breast feeding Effects on Intelligence Quotient in 4- and 11-Year-Old
Research Shows Breast Feeding is Beneficial
From the Paper "Breast feeding also has the probable protective effect of deterring sudden infant death syndrome, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, lymphoma, allergic diseases, as well as other chronic digestive diseases (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997, p. 1035). Klaus and Kennell(1976) found that a mother's milk provides better immunity and eliminates dangers of formula contamination. In fact, infants that were still breast feeding at six months had gained one-and-a-half pounds more, and had had fewer infections. Klaus and Kennell (1976) surmised that these differences may simply reflect the advantages of breast feeding over bottle feeding."
Tags: formula, disease, health, growth, development
Abstract In this article, the writer reviews a condition pathway through breast care services, engaging in critical analysis and evaluation of the services, treatment and interactions, and using clients' experience in the published literature. The writer also deals with the condition of breast cancer and the role of screening for breast cancer, including mammography screening for diagnosis. The writer notes that there is a large and diverse body of extant literature on the subject of breast cancer, and this literature approaches the cancer from many different perspectives. The interest of this paper lies in examining, screening and detection, treatment options, and factors related to pathology of the cancer.
Outline:
Introduction
Breast Screening
Breast Assessment Clinics
Pathology
Treatment
Role of Nursing Professional
Conclusion
From the Paper "Breast screening can be accomplished in a number of different ways and in different locations, including static units like hospitals and mobile units. Generally, effectiveness and time for each client differs according to the standard of care, and client communication and empathy skills remain very important to establish the link and helping relationship. In terms of screening and detection, it is important that breast cancer is detected early if the most effective treatments are to be given to the condition. Studies show that women tend to develop the cancer in the middle and late-middle ages, showing that detection and prevention efforts in terms of screening should start before this life stage. Moore pointed out further that the incidence of breast cancer doubles between the ages of 40 to 44 and 45 to 49, "at the same time mammography finds earlier and slower growing cancers with generally better prognoses. Optimal frequency of mammographic screening for women in their forties has not been determined ... "
Abstract The author of this paper relates that the author of this paper was prompted to reasearch the topic of breast cancer further after her friend had what is termed a 'breast cancer scare'. The paper then defines breast cancer as a gendered disease in which women are led to believe the fallacy that medicine is winning the fight against breast cancer. However being a female gendered disease being investigated by a male dominant medical field prompts the writer to argue that this may not be correct. The paper deals with the approach of cosmetic surgery with the intention of appearing more attractive and quotes examples and experiences of women. The paper states that it is essential for women to be positive and to fight the disease, not to be laid back and accept defeat, nor conceal the fact that breast cancer exists and realize that to hide it under beauty concepts may be fatal.
From the Paper "Recently, a close friend of mine had what is termed a "breast cancer scare". Following a routine mammogram, she was scheduled to have a suspicious lump removed from one of her breasts. During the wait for the surgery, and then the wait for the pathology report, we all reassured her as much as we could. We told her the things we have read and heard in the media, such as "Breast cancer's not such a big deal any more;" "Providing they catch it early, they can cure it;" "Almost no women die from breast cancer any more." And so on. And I, for one, believed it. It turned out that her lumps were not malignant, for which we are all deeply grateful. However, the incident caused me to wonder whether what we were saying was really true. Has the situation with regard to breast cancer really changed? Is it no longer the killer scourge that women used to fear so much? I did some research - and was shocked by the answers I found. As Batt (2002) puts it, "the overall mortality rate from carcinoma of the breast remains static" (p. 110). This of course begs the question: why are we being encouraged to believe that science is winning the fight against breast cancer, if this is not in fact true? As I will argue in this essay, the answer seems to have much to do with the fact that breast cancer is a gendered disease."
