Abstract
This paper looks at how the different advances in brain imaging-techniques have contributed to scientists increased ability to understand the concept of memory. It looks at the advent of Computed Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and what they have meant to the increased ability to understand and treat brain, and memory disorders.

From the Paper
"For example, fMRI was found useful for research by Awh and colleagues (1999) to observe brain activations during the performance of a spatial working memory task. In this investigation, subjects were given a spatial working memory task and a control task. Using fMRI the researchers found a functionally distinct, region that showed sustained activity during the spatial working memory task, confirming the location for the neural bases for that function. In the past, researchers who wanted detailed studies of human brain activity struggled because they lacked effective investigative tools. In experiments with humans the best technologies brought only limited success in mapping the processes of consciousness."

Tags:brain, ct, eeg, imaging, memory, mri, neuropsychology, neuroscience, pet, psychology, scan, amnesiac, cognative, personality, changes, human, brain, patients, techniques

Abstract
This paper discusses Herman Ebbinghaus' contributions to the discipline of psychology, particularly his contributions regarding aspects of human memory. The paper examines the intellectual tradition from which Ebbinghaus built his theories, notably the work of Wilhelm Wundt, and highlights the implications his work has had for contemporary practices in psychology. The paper shows how Ebbinghaus made a lasting contribution to the history and development of psychology, specifically in his work that applied experimental research to study the formation of associations.

From the Paper
"Indeed, Ebbinghaus was the first psychologist to investigate the properties of human memory. Ebbinghaus was influenced by the British empiricists, and he began with the assumption that memory involved the formation of new associations and that such associations would be strengthened through repetition. He wanted to observe this process and so developed tests using a set of items to be committed to memory. These items were called "nonsense syllables," meaning they would have no associations with known words that might somehow mediate memory. Lists of these nonsense syllables would have perhaps twenty items, and he would memorize these lists by reading and repeating each syllable to himself."

Tags:repetition, nonsense, syllables, knowledge, associations

Abstract
The paper illustrates the relationship between stress load and stress response and its affect on working memory during the typical circadian cycle. The paper's methodological approach relies on the hypothesis that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be accurately utilized to identify neural activation patterns related to Cortisol that is released due to stress. The paper concludes that greater research is necessary in order to attain a better understanding of how Cortisol, through its derivatives and precursors, impacts the brain's ability to enable memory.

Outline:
Introduction
Stress Hormone: Cortisol
Cortisol Receptor Distribution
The Frontal Lobe and Working Memory
Circadian Effects, Glucocorticoids and Imagery

From the Paper
"Stress is something that all humans experience. It is, in fact, part of the human experience. Yet, the affect of stress on the individual as well as its effects to the person experiencing it has been variously conceived by many researchers since its recognition as valid topic of research. While it is clear that most individuals conceive stress in different ways as an emotional response to various circumstances, the medical and psychological community have identified stress, or rather the body's reaction to it, as a having a potentially negative impact on individual health, mental performance, as well as memory (Zautra 36-8). In the area of mental performance and memory, stress and stressful situations greatly impact individual ability to perform to one's ability."

Tags:Magnetic, Resonance, Imaging, circadian, cycle, Cortisol, HPA, axis

Abstract
The paper relates that there are many studies into the long-term effects of heavy alcohol use and notes that it may lead to shrinkage of brain material. This in turn may lead to short-term memory deficits. The paper also relates that it is known that heavy alcohol use impairs the hippocampus which affects memory.

Outline:
Introduction
Brain Shrinkage and Short Term Memory Loss
Hippocampus Activity and Memory Loss
Conclusion

From the Paper
"As discussed earlier in the essay, heavy consumption has been associated for some time that with reductions in the numbers of cholinergic neurons in the forebrain. The forebrain cholinergic neurons are distinguished into two groups, those of the basal ganglia and those of the basal forebrain. The cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain project to the cortical regions, and the most rostral of these project to the allocortical regions such as the hippocampus. Therefore reductions in numbers of these cholinergic neurons will lead to reductions in activity of these allocortical regions, including the hippocampus. It is also possible that alterations in modulatory transmitter inputs such as cholinergic innervations may also play a role in the reduction of hippocampus activity without the actual loss of cholinergic neurons themselves. However in tests which have been performed on rhesus monkey models it has been shown that hippocampal activity reduction which is related solely to these alterations in modulatory input and not reductions in numbers of cholinergic neurons are unrelated to observed changes in memory function of any kind (Calhoun 475). This does not mean however that the reduction in hippocampal activity related to actual loss of cholinergic neurons does not lead to degeneration of memory function."

Tags:alcohol, brain, memory, loss

Abstract
The paper outlines the article entitled, "Social Networks and Memory Function" by Michael Craig Miller that shows how people who have tighter social circles may be less apt to develop memory loss. The paper then reviews the research from "Psychology Today" entitled "The Aging Brain" that explores the effects of cortisol on memory loss and finally, examines the article "Memory Starts Declining By Mid-20s" from "USA Today" that shows how memory loss already begins in the mid-20s. The paper points out how more research can be done on all three studies and suggests a future research design that will utilize all three factors of socializing, stress and the rate of memory loss.

Outline:
Part One: Introduction of Articles
Part Two: More Research Required
Part Three: Research Design

From the Paper
"Why is it that some people have memory loss as they age and others do not? What are some of the factors that contribute to memory loss and can they be used to prevent loss of cognitive ability? In an article entitled, "Social networks and memory function" (Miller 2008), research has shown that people who have tighter social circles may be less apt to develop memory loss. In a study that took place over several years - from 1998 to 2004 - researchers could "draw conclusion about the crucial issue of causation" (2008). The main question the researchers wanted to answer is whether social integration helps protect against memory loss, or is it that people who are suffering from memory loss are less likely to socialize?"

Tags:social, integration, cortisol, stress, brain, hippocampus

Abstract
This study discusses the question of whether caffeine actually does stimulate the nervous system in such as way that it improves short-term memory. More specifically, the study supports the hypothesis that a group of male students who drank caffeinated coffee prior to taking a short-term memory test will perform better in terms of accuracy and speed than a group of male students that drank decaffeinated coffee before the test. The focus of the study is on a single research question: "Does caffeine improve the short term memory in male college students?" The paper concludes with an evaluation of the efficacy of the study, noting that, from the results obtained in the study, one cannot determine that caffeine improves short-term memory.

Outline:
Introduction
Understanding Memory
Significance of Study
Hypothesis and Research Questions
Literature Review
Methodology
Results
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Memory refers to the way in which humans store information for retrieval at a later time. Memory is the key to learning. Memory begins with a stimulus that is received through the five senses. The brain receives the message and sorts the data according to similarities and differences to other information that it already has in storage. It categorizes the information and places it in a location so that the information can be retrieved at a later date.
"We have several types of memory, one is short-term memory and the other is long-term memory. Short-term memory might only last for a few minutes. A piece of information must enter short-term memory before it can enter long-term memory (Singleton, 2006). Working memory acts as the central processing hub for short-term memory. A stimulus might involve several types of information coming in. Working memory collects them and integrates them so that they can be forwarded to the proper locations in the brain. One example of working memory might be when a person smells smoke, feels heat, and hears a crackling noise. These pieces of information all come from different sensory organs. The working memory integrates them and sends them to the area of the brain where they will be interpreted (Singleton, 2006). These pieces of information might not mean danger when taken individually, but taken together; they will most likely be interpreted as danger."

Tags:long-term, stimulus, storage, researchers

Abstract
The paper introduces two scholarly papers on aging and memory; Peters & Daum (2008) on the effects of normal aging on retrieval and the importance of altered brain function, and Old & Naveh-Benjamin (2008) on memory and age-related associative deficit hypothesis (ARH). The paper then addresses the need for public understanding of memory deficits as normal versus symptoms of other geriatric troubles.

Tags:psych of aging, assoc/bio, 1st, year

Abstract
One of the most interesting areas of scientific research these days is the brain. This paper discusses the important cerebral functions of memory storage and development of reality and consciousness. It shows how the brain is capable of storing past events in one of its several compartments, but it has to be done efficiently or else past events would encroach upon recent ones thus blurring the boundaries between conscious and unconscious worlds.

From the Paper
"But while man does need to be able to recall past events, it is equally important for him to be able to separate past from present. For this he needs to know what reality is and where he is today and now. This may appear rather puzzling to someone who has just undertaken the study of brain, but it is nonetheless worth pondering. How does man know who he is and what reality actually is? In other words, in order to qualify as a normal rational human being, man needs to be able to separate conscious reality from the unconscious. But consciousness is not something tangible, it is one of those cerebral functions that cannot be explained in concert terms."

Tags:language, processing, Michael, Lemonick, Frontal, lobes

Abstract
This paper discusses brain imaging which may be able to answer questions about the brain, such as about human thoughts, emotions and actions. It also discusses some of the moral and ethical issues that must be considered when using this new technology. The paper focuses on research into the brain activity of criminals spending time in correctional facilities. It discusses whether it is too early to use neuroscience research, such as brain fingerprinting, as a definite substitute for the polygraph, to determine guilt or innocence, without first looking at ethical considerations.

From the Paper
"Farah and Wolpe (35) state that neuroethics encompasses a variety of bioethical issues. Some are these are the same as the ones in the past as in biomedicine, such as the safety of advanced research and treatment methods, the rationing of promising approaches, and predictive testing for future illnesses when no cure is available. Other neuroethical concerns, however, are unique to neuroscience due to the subject matter. The brain is the organ of the mind and consciousness, the location of human of being and thought. Interventions here thus have different ethical considerations than those in other parts of the body. Also, expanding knowledge of mind-brain connections may impact determinations of competence, mental health and illness and death. Further, moral and legal conceptions of responsibility most likely will be susceptible to change as knowledge of the physical mechanisms of behavior becomes more enhanced. The whole concept of privacy and confidentiality of thought processes could be threatened by instruments that can actually show neural connections of innermost thoughts."

Tags:conscious, thoughts, innocence, polygraph

Abstract
This paper will discuss the relationship of memory and sleep. By showing studies that pertain to memory consolidation, we can learn how REM sleep might affectively influence memory in neurology.