Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that the traditions that underlie the revolutionary bourbon drink can be traced back to early Americans that made their home in the United States. For more than two centuries, this drink has continued to change throughout time without losing its roots, which are engrained in Americana. The writer elaborates on the dramatic contributions made throughout history, and discusses several key individuals that took part of keeping this drink alive through the ages. The writer notes that presidential ties to this drink have been common, with George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln all playing significant parts in the historical foundations of bourbon. The writer concludes that at the current rate, bourbon will continue to play a role in the recreational activities of many people, and should continue to set the precedent in alcoholic beverages in centuries to come.

From the Paper
"Before George Washington was commanding the revolutionary forces, several references also describe him as a whiskey producer within the original colonies. However, as time went by, the government began to see whiskey and bourbon as a powerful commodity, and elevated the drink from bootlegging status to a full-fledged demanded commodity. In fact, during the revolution, the Whiskey Rebellion of 1791 occurred because of a revolt of settlers. Here, these inhabitants did not want to pay a tax on this precious homegrown drink, and began to revolt. So, ironically, Washington was forced to send his army to dispel the intense rioters, even though he once played a part in making bourbon without paying taxes to individuals in charge. These dramatic events would shape bourbon's historical perspectives within American culture."

Tags:whiskey, scotch, distilleries, alcohol

Abstract
The paper examines how the ideas about city and the body underwent a transformation in 18th century Spain and Latin America during Spain's enlightenment. The paper explores the philosophical ideas in Michel Foucault's thesis in "The Bird of the Clinic" and Alain Corbin's ideas as identified in "The Foul and the Fragrant: Odor and the French Social Imagination". This paper additionally examines medical theories about hygiene in the 18th century, the founding of the Royal Academy of Architecture in Madrid, Spain, and the Bourbon reforms.

Outline:
Objective
Introduction
The 'Clinical Gaze'
The Birth of the Clinic
Foucault on Poor, Sickness and Labor Force Productivity
Patients and Disease
Poverty and Criminals
The Confinement
Productive Labor and Moralists in Spain Transfer to Bourbon Reformation
Global 'Penal Reform Structure'
Summary and Conclusion

From the Paper
"Hygiene during this time was very much upon the basis of the individual's ancestry and their bloodline which was either aristocratic or 'pure' or was of the lower bloodlines which were characterized by their production of criminals and vagabonds or the poor. During this period of time many hospitals and clinics were constructed that were effectively used by the Bourbon reformation as places of imprisonment for the purpose of reforming the aimless poor in society. These aimless poor were not viewed as individuals but instead within the clinics and hospitals that served as prisons these individuals were merely appointed numbers or in many cases only known by the disease which marked their limited and brief existence. From this grandiose philosophical viewpoint the physician was imbibed with what was known as the 'clinical gaze'."

Tags:Foucault, Corbin, illness, doctor, poor, labor, slavery

Abstract
This paper examines how Bourbon rule in the 18th century differed in policy and philosophy from Hapsburg rule in 16th and 17th centuries. The author discusses challenges the rulers faced, how they responded to them, and how colonials reacted.

Abstract
This paper describes the social, political and economic conditions that brought about the French Revolution (1789 - 1799) and the corresponding consequences of the Revolution. The paper explains that the unrest between the classes of that period made the French people particularly receptive to a new order of thinking that was characterized by criticism of all the prevailing social, economic and political forces. The paper further explains that, from this new way of thinking, a new political and social climate began to emerge that led to the Revolution, which, in turn, ushered in an era of new social, political and economic rights and ideals still strongly associated with the French today.

From the Paper
"The socio-economic causes of the revolution began to rise to the surface in the period following the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt in 1713 and 1714, ending twenty-five years of war. The country entered into a period of recovery, and by 1770 the basic economic and social structures of a pre-industrial society were firmly in place. Although a Marxist view of the revolution prevailed for a number of years, recent historians emphasize the social causes. Rather than a struggle between a declining nobility and a rising bourgeoisie, historians now stress the fact that nobles and bourgeois had many common interests."

Tags:inability, ruling, classes, govern, state, indulgent, inept, king, widespread, poverty, working, classes, excessive, taxation, lower, levels, age, of, enlightenment, dissatisfaction, status, quo, intelligentsia, american

Abstract
This paper examines several select aspects of Naples, Italy from the period of the 14th through the 18th centuries in which a secularization of thought was seen. The paper begins with a discussion of dominant ideas in the medical profession during the European plague, followed by a consideration of why medicine should have been an area of secularized thought. The author then examines the effects of the Bourbon government on the thought of Neapolitans, and Naples as a rising center of the Italian Enlightenment. He then discusses the transition in the art of Naples after the Italian Renaissance. The paper concludes with the author's own opinions as to how physicians instigated the movement away from religious dependence in Naples, stating that it was artists who brought the movement to fruition. Table of Contents: Introduction The Medical Profession During the Plague Years The Rise of the Bourbons in Naples The Secularization of Neapolitan Art Conclusion

From the Paper
"This man, then, seems to have been less willing than his patients to attribute the recovery of those with the plague or similar diseases to the direct intervention of God. It should be noted, however, that the phrase "some servant of God, whether dead or alive," could indicate that the physician would not be willing to say that a patient cured by an angel or ghost had received a miracle. Angels and ghosts seem today to be on the same level of supernaturalism as God, so one would be inclined to say that this physician was still a very superstitious man because he simply believed in these things. However, it must be remembered that during this time almost no one among the commoners would have asserted that angels, in healing the sick, were not performing miracles."

Tags:religion, political, renaissance, catholic, angels, painting

Abstract
This paper looks at how on the 10th August 1792, the federes, several thousand National Guards and the Parisian sans-culottes joined together, creating a powerful force, which attacked the Tuileries and opened the way to the downfall of the Bourbon monarchy and the declaration of a republic. It evaluates the political, social, religious and economic factors which instigated the Republican Movement in France and fundamentally the downfall of King Louis XVI.

From the Paper
"Marie Antoinette's association with the "Austrian Committee" intensified the discontent towards the monarchy, as she was seen to be plotting a counter-revolution. When the Queen sent details of French military plans to the Austrians, hoping France could be defeated so that Louis could recover his lost powers, these suspicions were confirmed. The actions of the Great Powers (Russia, Austria and Prussia) further fueled the events, which later led to the rise of a republican movement. After Austria issued the Declaration of Pillnitz in association with Russia to no real avail they decided to try and intimidate France by threatening war. However this threat forced the King to dismiss his more conservative Feuillant ministers and elect a more radical government including a number of Girondins."

Tags:louis, xvi, marie, antoinette, national, gaurds, tuileries

Abstract
This paper explains that Euskera was once spoken in Aragon and West Catalonia as far back as the 7th century and, in the 9th and 10th centuries, through mass migration, it reached south of Alava. The author points out that the decline of this language was partly due to decisions made concerning the supremacy of Spanish during the Bourbon period of the 18th Century, which stigmatized Euskera as being only suitable for farmers and peasants whereas Spanish was used exclusively in education and instruction. The paper concludes that Euskera, the Basque language, is almost without monolingual speakers but whether it is doomed extinction is debatable. The paper includes some long quotations.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
An Historical Overlook of Euskera
Spanish and French Attitudes Concerning the Basque Language
Protecting Euskera
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Industrialization also played its part during the 19th century. The need for workers resulted in mass immigration and saw the arrival of so many monolingual Spanish speakers that their numbers far outweighed those of the Basque speakers. The fact that the Spanish speakers moved into several areas where the language had already been lost and the fact that the Franco government prohibited the use of Euskera, both helped to ensured that the language would become endangered."

Tags:immigration, monolingual, spanish, aragon, stigmatize

Abstract
This paper explains that, throughout the movie "Copy Cat", Dr. Helen Hudson deals with panic attacks and everyday life by taking a large amount of prescription pills and washing them down with bourbon whiskey to control her intense fear; she has been in her house for over thirteen months. The author believes that she would be diagnosed as having a panic disorder with agoraphobia associated with post traumatic stress disorder caused by the attack on her life in which she almost died herself after seeing a cop get shot. The paper concludes that the problem with the movie's portrayal of these conditions is that, at the end, she is cured instantly from agoraphobia, drug and alcohol abuse and panic attacks; plus she beats the bad guys and, all of the sudden, psychological life is grand.

From the Paper
"The character in the movie I would like to focus on is Dr. Helen Hudson (Sigourney Weaver). The movie starts out with Dr. Hudson being a very intelligent and capable person who is giving a lecture on serial killers at a University in San Francisco. The lecture goes well but afterwards she is attacked in the bathroom by a man (Harry Connick Jr.). We later learn that this man was on trial for murder and Dr. Hudson testified in court against him with her advanced knowledge on the subject. The attack was pretty graphic and she was rescued at the last minute by a police officer who heard gun shots. The movie then flashes to the present where Dr. Hudson is at home and suddenly wakes up sweating and hyperventilating. The images of the attack in the previous part of the movie now represent the dream she was having. In my opinion, they wanted the audience to think she has reoccurring nightmare about the attack."

Tags:comorbidity, agoraphobia, panic, post-traumatic, abuse

From the Paper
"The Leopard (Il gattopardo) was published in 1958 by Prince Giuseppe (Maria Fabrizio) Tomasi di Lampedusa. This historical novel chronicles the impact of Garibaldi's invasion of Sicily: "In May, 1860, Garibaldi sailed for Sicily, to win the island from the Bourbons" (9-10). Lampedusa goes into detail with the subsequent unification of Italy, and how this affects one specific Sicilian family who had thrived under the Bourbon kings.

Historically it is important to note that The Leopard shows the failure of the Risorgimento, and this created controversial political debates when it was first put out. Since that time, however, the arguments have subsided, and the novel is now recognized as a very complex psychological study of a specific age. Its style is highly symbolic, as well as richly poetic."

Abstract
This paper discusses that the Rights of Man, France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was written in 1789. The author points out that it signaled an end to royal prerogative and a beginning, at the state level, of the consideration of individual rights in France. The paper relates that, as the French Revolution ended the reign of the Bourbons and the power and prerogatives of the monarchy; freedom, liberty and equality for each citizen became the revolutionary goal of the French people.

From the Paper
"In 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen signaled an end to royal prerogative and a beginning, at the state level, of the consideration of individual rights in France. As the French Revolution ended the reign of the Bourbons and the power and prerogatives of the monarchy; freedom, liberty, and equality for each citizen became the revolutionary goal of the French people. In carefully considering the key aspects of the Declaration in the context of seventeenth and eighteenth-century political, social and/or literary thought, it is evident that one key aspect stands out above the rest--that men are born with inalienable and equal human rights."

Tags:rights, of, man