Abstract
The paper explains how both the top-down technique and the bottom-up technique work and highlights their differences. The paper then presents a table of the comparisons between top-down and bottom-up estimating mechanisms. The paper concludes that given the combined advantages and disadvantages of the top-down and bottom-up estimation techniques, it is best for the deciders of a project to use both methodologies in assessing the implications of future endeavors.

Outline:
Introduction
Comparative Analysis of Top-Down and Bottom-Up Estimating Techniques
Concluding Remarks

From the Paper
"The top-down technique revolves around analyzing the value of the project from the business standpoint. It looks at data from the balance sheet and transforms it into information relevant for the project team. The information can generically be retrieved by any party involved in the project, but most commonly this task belongs to those who possess sufficient experience, marketing information, benchmarking capabilities or any other extra-project characteristics. The estimations are seldom based on concrete and verifiable facts. The bottom-up technique on the other hand analyzes the estimates of the project, retrieved from analyses of the already known facts. The most common fact estimation refers to the amount of work the team will have to put in for the completion of the project."

Tags:budgets, costs, resources, estimates

Abstract
This paper discusses both 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' methods of policy implementation and the problems with each. It draws on theorists such as Babel and Lipsky.

From the Paper
"Once a decision is made with regard to a policy a method of putting it into effect is required. Implementation is a complex process whereby the means must make the goals achievable. Adding to the confusion is the number of agencies (and therefore individuals) involved. Each of these individuals can have an affect on the outcome that can complicate the process further."

Tags:bureaucrats, level, street, interaction, settings, goals, actions, achieve, forward, mapping, backward

Abstract
This paper identifies a student that has trouble thinking top-down and recommends flexible digital technology interventions that can help her achieve that type of thinking.

From the Paper
"A student who falls far from the mean than my other students in terms of the strategic network realm is Nancy R. Nancy is a bottom-up thinker rather than a top-down thinker. As Rose and Meyer Strategic Networks point out; "The top-down flow of information in strategic networks makes intuitive sense and students learn best when they have skills for both top-down and bottom-up processing, In Nancy's case, she finds it easier to work backwards from information to try to determine how something works or..."

Tags:neural network, recognition strategy, education, learning, flexible digital technology, top-down, bottom-up

Abstract
This paper explains that the control function plays an important role in both management and accounting because it includes a top-bottom flow, where the upper management or higher authorities oversee a certain process and a bottom-top process, when the feedback and follow-up actions come from the lower levels. The author points out that forecasting is essential in a relevant and well set-up expenditure system because forecasting permits the upper management and the decision factors within the company to establish what the financial requirements will be for the company in the next period of time, which creates the necessary premises for a thoroughly established budget. The paper states that the most relevant informational source within the company, which can influence the decision process in preparing future budgets, is the financial report, which lets the decision bodies know how the company is performing at the respective level from a financial point of view.

Table of Contents
Control Function
Forecasting
Performance Measurement
Preparation for Future Budgets

From the Paper
"The 4000 Direct Expenses account is where expenses that "will stop when you are not working." Labor and materials are two examples that come to mind in this case. However, there is a long list of indirect expenses that are associated with a business and these are recorded in the 5000 Indirect Expenses account. This are supposed to never go away, but it may often be the case that a manager will discover all kinds of expenditures that were made and were recorded here, expenses which do not necessarily increase the added-value of the company."

Tags:top-bottom, bottom-top, system, decision, report

Abstract
The paper relates that the lack of a known cause of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) raises the uncertainty of the most effective treatment method. The paper focuses on the two treatments therapists usually opt for; task-oriented interventions (top-down approaches) that teach purposeful goals, or an attempt to treat the underlying motor issues (bottom-up approaches) at the neural and muscular level. The paper points out that, although these therapies benefit the subjects, they do not serve as cures for their significant motor deficits. The paper concludes that this reinforces the need for further research as to the exact cause of DCD.

Outline:
Bottom-Up
Top-Down
Future Research
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Thirteen years ago, researchers agreed upon including "Developmental Coordination Disorder" (DCD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) (Iversen, Ellertsen, & Tytlandsvik, 2005). Today, a diagnosis of DCD often replaces the previously common assumption that a child who has uncoordinated motor skills is simply clumsy or going through an awkward phase. Approximately 5-8% of children between 5 and 11 years are diagnosed with DCD and therefore have significantly impaired motor function, which interferes with their activities of daily living. While many theories exist regarding the etiology of DCD, such as a secondary result of neuronal damage or neonatal insult, researchers have not defined an exact cause (Barnhart, Davenport, Epps, & Nordquist, 2007)."

Tags:bottom-up, top-down, therapy, motor, skills

Abstract
This paper discusses the three most popular curriculum change models, top-down, bottom-up and the partnership model. It explains that while all three have their advantages the partnership model of curriculum change is best suited for the future integration of new delivery formats and educational models. Also, the role of the school is touched upon in the sense that it has become a virtual organization in its own right as well as taking upon itself a greater role in the social positioning of its constituents.

From the Paper
"Three of the most predominant models of curriculum change are the top-down model, the bottom-up model, and the partnership based model (Pinar, 2003). The top-down model is based on a body of curriculum that is less vulnerable to change or influence on the part of teaching and other educational staff. The implication being that curriculum is better left to curriculum designers and educational theorists and that educators should have a minimal role in developing, designing, and assigning content to course curriculum. The bottom-up approach to curriculum change arose out of the realization that educational staff, primarily teachers and other educators invariably change curriculum content. This acknowledgement led to the bottom-up approach, which, as its name implies, relies on educators as a primary source of curriculum content. The rationale behind this model for curriculum change is that if educators are given a greater role in course content ..."

Tags:bottom, up, top, down, partnership

Abstract
This study examines the knowledge sharing process in order to determine what factors can successfully influence a manager's ability to overcome knowledge deficits and improve an organizations bottom line. Key aspects of knowledge sharing examined in this synopsis include operations management, information management and project management. In addition the researcher defines knowledge sharing as a strategy that contributes to continuous improvement in organizations large and small. For purposes of this study large organizational strategies are considered.

Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Synopsis of Knowledge Sharing Problem
Project Management
Operations Management
Information Management
Combining Operations, Information and Project Management To Foster Knowledge Sharing
Conclusions

From the Paper
"One of the most formidable challenges facing managers is facilitating productive knowledge sharing throughout the organization. Knowledge sharing is the process of exchanging or sharing information and knowledge within an organization in a manner that results in the greatest organizational success. There are many factors that can impede knowledge sharing within an organization. These include: lack of partnership, the lack of desire to seek advice from others or uncover new ways of doing things, failure to understand how useful knowledge might be for others, lack of trust and lack of time (Skyrme, 1). "

Tags:improves, organizational, performance, employee, morale, top, down, team, oriented

Abstract
The paper outlines the 'applied behavior analysis' (ABA) approach and the 'treatment and education of autistic and related communication-handicapped children' (TEEACH) approach to teaching and discusses three suggested approaches to reading instruction; bottom-up, top-down and eclectic where there is a mix of bottom-up and top-down modes. The paper examines the literature that shows how students with autism require a reading program that is structured, but flexible because all children with autism seem to express different needs and learning styles. The paper then reveals that the eclectic approach is best, because an autistic student requires several methodologies to obtain the appropriate education.

From the Paper
"When teaching a beginning autistic reader, especially as late as the secondary level, it is necessary to determine the learning methodology that will be best for teaching the required skills. This decision will be based on two different factors: First, students with autism have varying degrees of difficulty with communication, from severe (little to no interaction) to mild (the ability to receive information and provide a response or feedback). In order to teach reading to such a student, it is necessary that there appears to be an interest in labels, letters and words, as well as enough ability and skill level to look at these materials. Once a student recognizes that groups of letters form words that have meaning, and groups of words form sentences that have meaning, it is possible to move to beginning reading material. (Porco, 1989, p. 4)."

Tags:literacy, instruction, flexibility, learning, styles

Abstract
The paper explains that the ringi process uses a bottom up method of decision-making instead of ideas and change coming from the top management level, as is custom in Western businesses. The paper shows how the ringi system provides the ability to compete in the modern business world and still stay connected with its cultural foundations. The paper outlines the various components of the ringi method; the ringi-sei, the process of bottom up decision-making; the nemawashi, informal discussion and politicizing; and the ringi-sho, document circulation and also examines this process' strengths and weaknesses.

From the Paper
"When looking at the modern day world of business in Japan, Westerners are often surprised by the time consuming work put into the simplest decision making processes. Westerners, and specifically American companies, take decision making out of the hands of workers and lower management and leave all the changes to be made at the upper levels . What follows is often weeks if not months of creating a plan of implementation and enacting changes that very often have little resemblance with the original idea. This hierarchical campaign of all changes going on in the upper management can leave lower management feeling isolated and unimportant, and employees often feel resentment towards the executives who make all the changes but have little to do with how it will affect the employees let alone overall consensus within the company."

Tags:ideas, change, executives, management, ringi-sei, nemawashi, ringi-sho

Abstract
This paper looks at how once a decision is made with regard to a policy, a method of putting it into effect is required. It examines how implementation is a complex process whereby the means must make the goals achievable and how the process of implementation can be approached in two ways the "top-down" (also known as "the rational model" or "forward mapping") or "bottom-up" (also known as "backward mapping". It shows how British policy is stuck with with the "top-down" approach and how in order to make the best of it, each policy needs to come with clearly defined objectives, an implementation plan, sufficient support and resources and a system of communication and monitoring to ensure minimal deviation.

From the Paper
"The way things are interpreted by each individual can affect the implementation process. For example, a hospital manager may tell a G.P. that he needs to reduce waiting times for operations. The G.P. may interpret from that that he should perform some of the more minor operations at his surgery as he is qualified to do so. Alternatively, he could interpret that he simply needs to put people off operations if they are not an absolute emergency. The first interpretation would mean patients who have minor operations will be seen sooner and by reducing the number of people he is sending to hospital he is reducing the waiting times for those who are having operations there."

Tags:bureaucracy, mapping, government, maker