Abstract This paper presents a detailed overview of sickle cell disease, an inherited disease of the red bloodcells, which is present from birth. The paper begins with a brief discussion of the history of the disease, including its discovery. Next the paper investigates the pathophysiological aspects of the disease, presenting the information in easy-to-understand layman terms. The paper then discusses how sickle cell disease affects sufferers physically. Finally the paper presents and evaluates treatment options.
Outline:
Historical Perspective
Pathophysiological Basics of Sickle Cell Disease
Physical Manifestations of Sickle Cell Disease
Treatment options for Sickle Cell Disease
Conclusion
From the Paper "Before one can speak in depth on sickle cell disease itself, one must understand the basic pathophysiology which surrounds the condition. Hemoglobin is a protein carried by red cells, which carries oxygen from the lungs for delivery to peripheral tissues. It is composed of two similar proteins, alpha and beta. It is the coordinated action of the alpha and beta globin chains which allow the oxygen transport to occur. These two chains combine to form hemoglobin. During life, except during the very first week of embryonic development, one of the globin chains in an alpha. A developing fetus also has another chain which is a gamma globin; sometimes called non-alpha is present in the fetal circulation. The gamma globin is replaced shortly after birth with the beta, which then chains with the alpha. When two alpha chains combine with two gamma chains, this is called Hemoglobin F, or the common hemoglobin of fetal circulation. Adult hemoglobin, formed of two alpha and beta chains is called Hemoglobin A. If one alpha and one non-alpha chain combine, then this two chain combination is called a dimer and it not functional enough to deliver oxygen to tissues."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses the genetic condition of sickle cell anemia, a life-long condition that causes defective red bloodcells, which form sickle cell shapes upon becoming deoxygenated, rather than maintaining the usual disc shape. The writer explains that the deformity in shape prevents the red cells from moving easily through the blood vessels as normal cells would. The sickle-shaped cells tend to form clumps in the blood vessels and prevent the healthy cells from getting through. The writer discusses symptoms and diagnosis of the disorder as well as a possible therapy that mainly focuses on relieving the symptoms associated with the condition.
From the Paper "The main problems which will put the patient at risk in sickle cell disease are the sickle cell crises. These are an issue not only to the severe pain which they cause but also due to the damage which the blockage of blood vessels can cause when they occur in or around an organ. Pulmonary complications are a particular problem for sufferers of sickle cell disease, which are caused in this manner. Bacterial infections are also a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in sickle cell sufferers as the function of the spleen is usually either compromised or entirely absent. Splenic sequestration is one of the most serious complications of sickle cell disease, in which the spleen swells and causes a significant drop in hemoglobin levels."
Abstract This paper looks at many factors relating to blood,including different cell types, Rh factor, serum constituents, how it circulates throughout the body and blood tests. The paper also looks at the average lifespan of red cells and explains the implications of higher than normal red cells.
From the Paper "The average adult male has between five and six liters of blood and the average female has between four and five liters. The color of blood is determined by the state of oxygenation of its red cells. When blood leaves the heart it has been oxygenated in the lungs and therefore arterial blood is bright red. When blood has passed through the tissues oxygen has been removed from the red cells so the blood appears dark red in the veins. Nutrients carried in the blood include..."
Abstract This paper looks at the blood, and at the various cells of which it is composed. It looks at the properties of white cells, and the mechanism of homeostasis. It also looks at how overgrowth of a blood clot is prevented naturally, and examines two undesirable conditions of intra-vascular blood clotting.
Abstract This paper discusses how there is a fear, which continues today, regarding safe blood and HIV and how beyond contamination, there is another serious blood issue and that involves blood shortages. It describes the actual function of the blood to the body, how bloodcells regenerate, and the principles of blood transfusions. It shows that duplicating all the functions that blood performs in the human body would seem to be an impossible challenge and how any artificial blood product must pass several tests. It also looks at current research into synthetic blood production from two distinct directions, one based on chemicals and the other based on hemoglobin.
From the Paper "What function does blood actually provide within ? and for ? the body? According to the assigned article in Scientific American, blood "transports nutrients, hormones and waste products"; blood also fights infections and has the ability to "clot" ? preventing or at least slowing down serious hemorrhaging. The part of human blood which helps fight disease is the white blood cells. But the most "familiar" function of blood in the body of mammals is the ?capture and release of oxygen and carbon dioxide.? The protein most commonly found in blood, hemoglobin, is also a critically important protein. Hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs, and distributes it throughout the body. The red blood cells pick up carbon dioxide, which is a waste product given off through the respiration of cells, and humans exhale the carbon dioxide out through the lungs."
Abstract The paper discusses the molecular genetics of sickle cell anemia and how this disorder alters the red cell's function of homeostasis. The paper relates that the sickle cell gene is spread widely throughout Africa, the Middle East and India and countries in which there are large numbers of African immigrants, including the United States. The paper includes a map (as an appendix) that shows the regions of the world in which the sickle cell gene is most commonly found.
From the Paper "There are a number of hereditary anemias, which feature disorders of the structure or synthesis of hemoglobin, deficiencies of enzymes which provide energy to red blood cells or protect the red blood cells from damage, or abnormalities in the proteins found in the cell membranes of red blood cells. Inherited diseases of hemoglobin are the most important, and these are termed hemoglobinopathies; it is into this category that sickle cell anemia falls. Sickle cell anemia has a genetic basis, and was the first genetic disease to be characterized at the molecular level (Ingram, 2004"
Tags: hemoglobin, homeostasis, red, blood, cells, mutation, DNA
Abstract This paper examines the different cellular elements of blood, describing their function and how they help maintain homeostasis. the paper also describes the reflex arc in the nervous system and how it operates.
This paper explains that stem cell research is leading scientists to investigate the possibility of treating disease with cell-based therapies, often referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine.
Abstract This paper relates that implanted stem cells used to repair or replace damaged tissues are less likely to be rejected by the body's immune system than other foreign cells. The author points out that germ line cells and adult stem cells are less versatile than embryonic stem cells, which can develop into every type of tissue found in an adult; however, the processes that control this development are at present not fully understood. The paper discusses that BioMark International, a privately funded Biotech Group, provides access to a unique method of Cord Blood Stem Cell (CBSC)processing by which CBSCs are derived from the umbilical cords from natural full term births of consenting mothers, all of whom have been tested according to standards set by the American Association of Blood Banks .
From the Paper "In May 2004, Nancy Reagan, whose husband former President Ronald Reagan was at the time suffering the advanced stages of Alzheimer's disease, urged the Bush administration to support embryonic stem cell research and said that too much time had been wasted discussing the issue. Although a Republican, Mrs. Reagan has been critical of the Bush administration for blocking public funding of stem cell research due to the party's ethical reservations concerning embryo research. Speaking at a fundraising dinner for the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation, she said she believed the research could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's disease, and "may provide our scientists with many answers that for so long have been beyond our grasp...I just don't see how we can turn our backs on this...We have lost so much time already...I just really can't bear to lose any more.""
Abstract This paper discusses the discovery of and research into Glycophorin A, a sugar-bearing protein that spans the entire thickness of the red bloodcell membrane and that contains some carbohydrate chains that protrude from the membrane surface. These chains serve several important functions: First, they act as the cell's recognition sites for blood groups and for certain viruses; second, they are involved in the maintenance of the negative charge on the cell's surface, and this charge prevents the cell from clumping with other red bloodcells.
From the Paper Glycophorin is a sugar-bearing protein. It spans the entire thickness of the red blood cell membrane. Glycophorin was named by Vincent Marchesi, the man who succeeded in detaching it, intact, from membrane ghosts. Glycophorin contains some carbohydrate chains that protrude from the membrane surface. These chains serve several important functions: First, they act as the cell's recognition sites for blood groups and for certain viruses; second, they are involved in the maintenance of the negative charge on the cell's surface, and this charge prevents the cell from clumping with other red blood cells (Pines 85). Glycophorin today is now the best-known of the glycoproteins extending through the cell membrane. It is also the first to have its amino acids completely analyzed and sequenced.
Presents a research project designed to develop synthetic analogs of erythropoietin, a protein hormone produced by the kidney that stimulates the production of red bloodcells.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 1 source, 2006, $ 53.95
Abstract This paper reports on experiments addressing the issue of developing synthetic analogs of erythropoietin, a protein hormone produced by the kidney that stimulates the production of red bloodcells. The hormone is given to patients suffering from kidney failure when they develop anemia, which occurs primarily because their production of erythropoietin is abnormally low. The company has produced an analog that stimulates red bloodcell production and so mimics the action of erythropoietin. The analog has been derived from bone marrow cells in culture. The product may be called Redgen. The current research is a test on Redgen to characterize its activity and signaling pathway.
Abstract The writer details the different blood types which are in critically low supply, while explaining that blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from lungs to body tissue, and extracting carbon dioxide from body tissue to lungs. The paper goes on to explain the different types of donations needed, including double red cell donation which is an automated procedure that allows one person to give two units of red bloodcells, resulting in one donation helping two patients.
From the Paper "There are four main components, red blood cells, platelets, plasma, and white blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to body tissues and remove carbon dioxide. A red blood cell has a flat, disk like shape. It resembles a doughnut with a thinner middle and thicker edges. There are approximately one billion red blood cells in two to three drops of blood. Platelets are disk like structures that help stop bleeding. For example if a blood vessel is cut, platelets together and form around the edge of the cut, a plug like stopper. After donation, platelets have a shelf life of only 5 days. Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood, a protein-salt solution in which red and white blood cells and platelets are suspended. It makes up about 50 to 60 percent of the total volume of blood. Plasma serves a variety of functions, from maintaining a satisfactory blood pressure and volume to supplying critical proteins for blood clotting and immunity. White blood cells are responsible for protecting the body from invasion by foreign substances such as bacteria, fungi and viruses. Most of the cells are round and colorless. White blood cells produce proteins called anti-bodies that destroy bacteria and viruses. In the blood stream, there is only one white blood cell for every 600 red cells."
Abstract This paper reviews and discusses sickle cell anemia. According to the paper, sickle cell anemia is an inherited blood disorder characterized primarily by chronic anemia and periodic episodes of pain. Sickle cell anemia is in essence a condition in which there is insufficient healthy bloodcells to convey oxygen to the body.
Outline:
Definition and Description
Inheritance and Genetics
Incidence
Symptoms
Brief Historical Overview
Prognosis and Treatment
From the Paper "In order for sickle cell anemia to manifest itself the presence of two defective genes ( SS) are needed. In other words, if two parents are the carriers of one sickle hemoglobin gene (S) as well as a single normal cell ( A) then each chills born for these parents will have a "...25% chance of inheriting two defective genes and having sickle cell anemia; a 25% chance of inheriting two normal genes and not having the disease; and a 50% chance of being an unaffected carrier like the parents." (New Hope for People with Sickle Cell Anemia)"
"Individuals who have only one copy of the mutation are said to have sickle cell trait. These people are usually healthy but can transmit the disease to their children. This aspect is clarified by the fact that, "Sickle Cell trait (AS) is an inherited condition in which both hemoglobin A and S are produced in the red blood cells, always more A than S. Sickle cell trait is not a type of sickle cell disease. People with sickle cell trait are generally healthy." (What is Sickle Cell Disease?)"
Abstract This paper explains that the framework of the nephron in the kidney is made up of epithelial cells. The author points out that there are two types of nephrons, cortical and juxtamedullary, and they are named according to the location within the renal parenchyma. The paper relates that epithelial cells that make up the nephron must be able to preserve nutrients and materials required by the body and return them to circulation, while leaving wastes, toxins and excess water to be expelled. The author states that the epithelia are described by the number of layers and the shape of the cells at the edge closest to the exterior environment, thus helping to prevent bacteria and other foreign materials from entering the body. The paper continues that the epithelial cells of the nephron permit the kidney to have particular functions that include controlling blood pressure.
From the Paper "Epithelium lines the surfaces of the body and is positioned on the borders between the exterior and interior environments. Epithelium is a tissue composed of cells, bound tightly together with no intercellular connective tissue. These cells derive their food and oxygen from the tissue fluid that filters through from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue. The epithelium develops in the embryo from all the three germ layers; ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The epithelium is derived from mesenchyme cells that mature into connective tissue, bone, cartilage, blood and the lymphatic system."
Abstract This paper investigates the probability that without effective intervention, umbilical cord banking will no better serve certain population groups, particularly minorities, any more effectively than existing bone marrow technology. It looks at how umbilical cord banking is more and more becoming a 'hot topic' among medical communities the world over and how recent technological advances have enabled scientists to bank umbilical cord blood as a source of hematopoietic stem cells for both pediatric and adult patients with certain blood related disorders.
Outline
Introduction
Significance of the Study
Literature Review
Benefits Cord Banking
Cord Blood Vs. Bone Marrow Transplantation
The Effects of Intervention
Summary of Preliminary Literature Review
Methods
Possible/Anticipated Results
From the Paper "Ballen, et. Al (2002) performed a study comparing the racial composition of five member cord blood banks of the National Marrow Donor Program. The study examined cord blood and bone marrow donors using self reported racial designations and questionnaire, and showed that cord blood banks in California, Florida and Massachusetts recruited a lower percentage of minorities than the bone marrow centers in the same areas. However in New York and Colorado the recruitment for minorities was the same in both cord banks and marrow centers. However, the study also showed that in all of the centers examined, cord blood banks generally recruited a lower percentage of minorities than "those delivering at the respective hospitals" with the authors concluding that the problems of insufficient minority recruitment with regard to cord blood banking "Has not yet been solved" (Ballen, et. Al, 2002:1247)."
Abstract In this article, the writer explores the topic of stem cell research by looking at what stem cells really are. The writer then looks at the types of stem cells and their possible benefits. Further, the writer discusses the ethical debate surrounding the issue. The writer also discusses why stem cell research is important to our society and the future of science. The writer concludes that it must be remembered that stem cell research still has a long way to go before it can realize its potential for transforming the future of science and the human society.
Outline:
Background
What are Stem Cells?
Embryonic Stem Cells Adult Stem Cells The Potential Benefits of Stem Cells Basic Information About Cells Cell-Based Therapies
Drug Testing
The Ethical Debate
Is Embryo a Person?
Reproductive Cloning
Human-Animal Chimeras
Why Stem Cell Research is Important to the Society and the future of Science
From the Paper "As we have seen in this paper so far, stem cell research can have far-reaching effects on the future of Science and the human society because of its potential to develop new disease models, alter the current drug development philosophy, and introduce new applications in transplantation medicine. However, there is consensus among scientists that considerable research is needed before the dream can become a reality and the scope of research can only be made possible through large-scale government (read US federal government) funding.
In 2001, President Bush introduced legislation that restricts the use of federal funds for human embryonic stem cell research to the cell lines that were available as on August 9, 2001. Since such cell lines are limited, this restriction has severely handicapped the pace and scope of stem cell research. In this scenario, the work of two pioneering scientists - James Thomson and Shinya Yamanaka - has assumed crucial importance."
