Abstract
This paper describes the structure and function of the liver and gall bladder and the embryology of the liver. It also reviews two research papers, one on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and the other on laser ablation for liver cancer.

From the Paper
"The liver is a large, reddish brown organ located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric region of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm, and is the largest gland in the body. (Applegate Merck) The liver is divided into two major lobes and on the anterior surface the falciforme ligament composed of a double layer of peritoneum attaches it to the abdominal wall separating the right lobe from the left. There are two additional small lobes on the visceral surface. The caudal lobe lies..."

Tags:liver, embryology, hepatic cancer, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), gall bladder

Abstract
This paper discusses the liver and hepatobiliary system in terms of clinically relevant anatomy. The writer explains that the liver and gall bladder are both considered a part of the digestive tract and are responsible for the synthesis and breakdown of many metabolites from the digestive system and the rest of the human body.

From the Paper
"The liver, considered the largest gland in the human body, is host to a variety of metabolic and detoxifying functions, specifically the synthesis, storage and breakdown of glucose, peptides and amino acids and fatty acids for use by the rest of the body and the deactivation or modification of foreign substances for excretion from the body. The gall bladder and hepatobiliary system is responsible for the production and storage of bile pigments and salts used in the transport of lipid-soluble substances within the water-soluble environment of the gut."

Tags:liver, gall, bladder

Abstract
This is an anatomy paper which discusses gall bladder disorders. The writer first provides background information and then explores homeopathic treatments. It explains the need for alternative treatments to surgery and drugs.

From the Paper
"The gall bladder is a small, pear-shaped organ nestled beneath the liver. It stores treats the bile from the liver, and then dumps the bile into the intestines. Gall bladders can suffer several disorders, such as gallstones, gall bladder sludge, infection and inflammation, and even cancer. Some symptoms of gall bladder disorders include nausea or vomiting, pain in the upper abdomen or between the shoulders, abdominal bloating, continued intolerance of fatty foods, and gas and/or indigestion (Comforth). Patients may also notice a fever, or slight jaundice (yellow skin or whites of the eyes) (Bartel). Gallstones are the most common form of gall bladder disorder, and usually are the cause of at least 80 percent of gall bladder disorders. Usually, there are always stones present in most gall bladders. However, when the stones move, and block the cystic duct, which is the main artery out of the gall bladder, problems occur. This is when the gall bladder cannot remove the bile, and it builds up inside the gall bladder with not outlet. Eventually this can lead to other complications, such as inflammation, infection, and even bursting of the gall bladder."

Tags:infection, artery, anatomy

Abstract
This paper discusses the liver and hepatobiliary system in terms of clinically relevant anatomy. The relevant physiology in relation to these organs is also discussed as well as pathological disorders associated with each.

Outline
Anatomy
Physiology
Main Pathological Disorders
Summary

From the Paper
"The liver is a vital organ for altering the activity of foreign substances such as drugs and toxins. This is accomplished mainly through an enzyme system called the cytochrome P450 complex in the liver cells. Drugs and toxins within the bloodstream are filtered through the liver cells and metabolized. The liver cells detoxify the blood by adding groups to the substances that makes them inactive or more water- or fat-soluble, where they can be safely excreted through the urinary system or digestive system. Alternatively, these substances can be broken down by certain enzymes, rendering them inactive. Some drugs, however, utilize the catabolic nature of the liver in order to convert less active or initially inert drugs into their active metabolites. "

Tags:toxins, bloodstream, metabolites

Abstract
This paper examines how the illegal drug market in the United States is one of the most profitable in the world and attracts the most sophisticated and aggressive drug traffickers. It describes many methods of trafficking including the use of a collapsible rubber fuel "bladder". It also looks at how the United States Customs Service, an agency of the U. S. Treasury Department, is the primary enforcement agency protecting the United States and the only border agency with extensive air, land and marine interdiction forces and its own intelligence branch.

From the Paper
"The traffic and distribution of illegal drugs involves diverse groups. Criminal groups operating from South America "smuggle cocaine and heroin into the United States via a variety of routes, including land routes through Mexico, maritime routes along Mexico's east and west coasts, sea routes through the Caribbean, and international air corridors." Then there are criminal groups operating in Mexico that smuggle cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, amphetamine, and marijuana across the Southwest Border into the United States for distribution. Aside from the foreign import of drugs, there are domestic organizations that cultivate, produce, manufacture, and distribute illegal drugs such as marijuana, methamphetamine, phencyclidine, PCP, and lysergic acid diethyamide, and LSD."

Tags:sophisticated, bladder, customs, mules, straws

Abstract
This paper explores the use of Cranberry as a prophylactic intervention for urinary tract infections (UTI). It presents a research proposal to compare groups of adult pre-menopausal women who are susceptible to UTI to determine if the participants consuming cranberries have a lower rate of UTI than those not consuming cranberries and if larger amounts results in a lower incidence of UTI. A review of seven pieces of primary literature, aimed at determining the effectiveness of cranberry at reducing UTIs in populations of; women, elderly men and women, spinal cord injured adults and children with a neurogenic bladder (a bladder dysfunction associated with neurological malfunction) is also undertaken. The literature was selected because it represented a cross section of society, allowing comparisons to be made across different populations. The literature is analysed to allow the current writer to form opinions based upon the evidence. Two tables and a glossary of terms are included with the paper.

Outline:
Introduction
Background Information
Aim of the Literature Review
Search Strategy
Objectives of the studies
Design
Subjects & Settings
Methods & interventions
Cost Effectiveness
Ethical Consideration
Results/Effectiveness
Populations of elderly women, and men and women
Populations of women
Populations of children with a neurogenic bladder
Population of spinal cord injured patients
Cranberry Interventions
Conclusion and direction for the future
Research Proposal
Title
Study Problem/Purpose
Relevance/Study Rationale
Literature Review
Research Objectives/Research Questions
The Secondary aim is to determine;
Methods
Study Design
Subjects
Inclusion Criteria
Exclusion Criteria
Identifying and approaching participants
Baseline Data Collection
Randomization
Intervention
Trial Data Collection
Sample Size and Analysis Plan
Sample Size
Analysis
Data Management
Ethical Considerations
Funding
Plans for Dissemination
Reflective Conclusion
References
Glossary
Appendix a. Interventions between studies

From the Paper
"Since the early twentieth century, before the invention of antibiotics, consumption of berries from the vaccinium species (in particular Cranberries) was associated with a reduction of bacterial urinary tract and bladder infections. Seminal research carried out by Blatherwick (1914) initially identified benzoic acid within cranberries as the main therapeutic agent. Blatherwick (1914) hypothesised that Benzoic acid was digested then excreted as hippuric acid, having effect upon the urine by altering the ph, creating an environment which prevented the bacteria from multiplying.
"Scientific opinion changed during the late twentieth century after further studies were carried out. Sabota (1984) reproduced in-vitro samples from both humans and mice. He found that if bacteria were pre-incubated with Cranberry juice prior to being introduced to uroepithelial cells, the adherence capability of the bacteria was significantly reduced. Ofek, Goldhar, Zafriri, Lis, Adar and Sharon (1991) identified that the active ingredient proanthocyanidin, contained within the Cranberry, was the main constituent which interfered with the bacteria's ability to adhere to the uroepithelial cell walls. The new knowledge regarding Cranberries and their ability to prevent UTIs changed the future direction of scientific investigations and increased the popularity of Cranberry."

Tags:organic, scientific, investigations

Abstract
The paper explains that spasticity has as its symptoms stiffness and tight muscles in the arms and legs mostly. The paper describes how patients are unable to relax their muscles completely resulting in tremors, shaking and jerking movements that are uncontrollable. The paper explains that spasticity is often a complication of brain trauma, cerebral palsy, stroke, MS and spinal cord injuries. The paper explains that the pain associated with spasticity is similar to that of muscle cramps in athletes. The paper relates that triggers that cause spastic episodes include a full bladder, a quick movement and skin irritation ("Intrathecal Baclofen (ITB) Overview", n.d.).

From the Paper
"Define Spasticity: Spasticity has as its symptoms stiffness and tight muscles in the arms and legs mostly. Patients are unable to relax their muscles completely resulting in tremors, shaking, jerking movements that are uncontrollable. Spasticity is often a complication of brain trauma, cerebral palsy, stroke, MS and spinal cord injuries. The pain associated with spasticity is..."

Tags:developing, action, plan

Abstract
The paper explains that UTIs occur when bacteria from the urethra finds its way into the bladder, and an acute UTI is when bacteria reaches the kidney. The paper discusses how symptomatic bacteriuria is when a significant amount of bacteria presents itself in the urine along with symptoms of burning during urination and increased urges to urinate. The paper relates that symptomatic bacteriuria needs treatment.

From the Paper
"UTIs occur when bacteria from the urethra finds its way into the bladder. An acute UTI is when bacteria reaches the kidney. Define symptomatic bacteriuria: Symptomatic bacteriuria is when a significant amount of bacteria presents itself in the urine along with symptoms of burning during urination and increased urges to urinate. Symptomatic bacteriuria needs treatment. Define asympomatic bacteriuria: Asymptomatic bacteriuria is when the urine has a significant number of..."

Tags:uti, septic, shock

Abstract
This paper discusses the age that is appropriate for toilet training and some of the methods recommended to be used, noting that toilet training at a certain age is most often a function of social pressures. The paper contends that society therefore requires the child to learn voluntary control of bladder and bowel in order to void at an acceptable time and place.

From the Paper
"There are also ongoing discussions about such related topics as what would be the appropriate age range for toilet training and what are some developmentally appropriate guidelines for successful toilet training. The literature on the subject shows a number of answers to these questions and suggests that the issues may not be settled as yet. Before toilet training, research shows that there are developmental stags through which the child passes in developing increased control over certain bodily functions. Toilet training requires a certain degree of development because the child is otherwise simply unable to learn and respond as the parent will wish. Watson (1959) writes that the child at four weeks tends to have three or four bowel movements in a 24 hour period and that the child may now cry when his diaper is wet ..."

Tags:toilet, training, methods

Abstract
This paper looks at multiple sclerosis (MS), a disease of the central nervous system in which the myelin, which normally insulates nerve fibers and helps conduction of impulses, is damaged in random areas. It examines the different symptoms of MS which include feelings of weakness, clumsiness or exhaustion at the beginning followed by double vision, weakness of the arms and legs, muscle stiffness, dizziness, loss of bladder control, depression and memory loss. It evaluates the current myths and misconceptions about the disease such that it is fatal and everyone with MS ends up in a wheelchair. It describes the current courses of treatment and how the MS patient must learn to accept the changes in their life brought about by the disease, such as changes in work capabilities and changes in lifestyle.

From the Paper
"As the disease progresses, symptoms may become more severe and may leave lasting disabilities between actual episodes, so the MS patient will have to make adjustments to their life as the disease develops. This may mean changing jobs or working hours, making adjustments in the workplace and home to cater to a wheelchair or other assistive devices, changes in lifestyle such as taking a nap frequently when the patient gets tired easily, limiting travel and having help in the home. The MS patient has to make many adjustments to cope with the changes in their capabilities brought about by MS, but they can still lead full, rewarding lives, and still work. If they are one of the lucky ones who have long periods of remission between episodes, they may be able to function normally for long periods of time, and just learn to make the necessary adjustments during episodes of MS flare-up."

Tags:rehabilitation, wheelchair, muscles, lifestyle, myelin