Abstract This paper describes the peaceful, nonviolent approach to the struggle for blackcivil rights advocated by Martin Luther King. Jr. The paper contrasts this by exploring the black nationalism and armed struggle rhetoric of Malcolm X. The paper agrees with parts of both of their arguments.
From the Paper "Violence is the central perpetual social issue of the human species. Having evolved from non-human animals which fought and killed with tooth and claw for their very survival each individual member of the human family is endowed with a ..."
Abstract The paper muddles on the evolution of the African American struggle coupled with civil right movements formulated- specifically the Black Panther Party- and focuses on the question of what the organization is, where it originated and spread, and why it was so popular.
From the Paper Amid the turbulent struggle for equal rights for the black community in America numerous organizations and arenas emerged as potential facilitators of that laudable goal. The struggle was long and arduous, and various approaches arose as potential modalities to pursue the end most effectively. The Black Panther Party, which was established in 1966, was one such tactical approach. In its brief sojourn on the American scene, it attracted mega attention and an almost mythical status and reputation. Actions to cope with the potential repercussions of the Black Panther Party were numerous, and often violated associated constitutional norms within the American psyche for fairness and legal protection. Nevertheless to some powers that be on at that time, no more dangerous cadre of proponents of black rights existed then the Black Panther Party (Summers, 1993, 21). To those who opposed the methods, philosophy, and personas of the Black Panther Party, the need to crush the organization and nullify their influence within the societal complex of the United States was considered a crusade for the survival of this country itself. To truly analyze and come to terms with the importance and problematic issue of the Black Panther Party, it is necessary to review in some depth the overall complex involved in the struggle for black liberation in this country. The Black Panther Party occupies a decided niche in this puzzle, but it did not exist in a vacuum. It is a clear product and reaction to what preceded it.
Abstract This paper closely examines the blackcivil rights movement in Mississippi through the book "Coming of Age in Mississippi" by Anne Moody. The paper gives great historic detail to events and issues of the 1950s and 60s. It gives biographic details of Anne Moody's courageous life.
From the Paper "African Americans had been struggling for their right for freedom and equality in the United States since the early 1600's and the struggle had undergone a metamorphosis many times. As the times and social attitudes changed so did the strategy of the fight. African Americans adapted to the mood and behavior of the era they were in."
Tags: african, americans, freedom, equality, united, states, america, 1950, 1960, social, injustices, color, racial, civil, rights, movement
Abstract The paper relates the history of black Americans starting from the pre-Civil War period. It includes a description of the life of free blacks in the pre-civil war period, the life of a southern plantation slave, the roles of free blacks and slaves during the civil war, and the reconstruction period.
From the Paper "Although numerous discriminatory laws restricted their lives even in the colonial period, freed African Americans, particularly in the North, were active participants in American society. Black men enlisted as soldiers and fought in the American Revolution and the War of 1812. Some owned land, homes, businesses, and paid taxes. In some Northern cities, for short periods, black property owners voted. A very small number of free blacks owned slaves. "
Abstract This paper examines W.E. B. Du Bois and his novel "The Souls of Black Folks." The writer begins with a short biography DuBois, his motivation behind the writing of this book and how in his later life he embraced Communism. The author discusses some of the major topics that are covered in DuBois' book including black history in the post-Civil War period, the contributions of some of the most blacks in American history, racism and poverty. According to this author, this book is one of the most significant pieces of non-fiction written about the black community in America prior to the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
From the Paper "Throughout the book Du Bois mentions racism almost casually, such as the white school superintendent who hires him to teach, invites him to dinner, and then makes him eat alone, after the whites have eaten their dinner. These slights are just some of the injustices blacks faced during Du Bois' time, and they appear continually in the book, illustrating the depth of racism and ignorance in white society. "Again, we may decry the color-prejudice of the South, yet it remains a heavy fact. Such curious kinks of the human mind exist and must be reckoned with soberly. They cannot be laughed away, nor always successfully stormed at, nor easily abolished by act of legislature" ("Souls," 2002)."
Tags: dubois, americans, civil, rights, racism, movement, slavery, white
Abstract This paper is a review of the collection of essays in W.E.B. Dubois' "The Souls of Black Folk." The writer presents a short biography of William Edward Burghart Dubois, who was active in the civil rights movement and is identified as one of the most influential black intellectuals of the last century. Dubois' life experiences influenced his political and personal agenda and set him aside from other black leaders of his time. The book includes chapters on the civil rights movement and the history of the American Negro, with most of its content being influenced by his own experiences.
From the Paper "The Souls of Black Folk was first published in 1903 with Dubois declaring in the foreword ?the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line,? (The Souls, ?Forethought,? p. 1) and setting the stage for a groundbreaking treatise on the condition and soul of the black community. It is interesting to look at what the critics and the white community thought of the book at the time. In a review published in the New York Times on April 23, 1903, the reviewer attacks Dubois? credentials for understanding the Southern black folks, as he was a black man of northern education who could not feel what the Southerners (Black or White) felt. The reviewer concluded that the fundamental attitude (of the whites about blacks) was the product of conditions prevailing over centuries and was comparable to the attitude of the gentry over the peasantry in other countries. (Quoted by Rydell, 1996)."
Abstract This paper reviews the black form as depicted in Civil War America. The paper argues that the period systematically subordinated the black soldier to his white counter-parts and that this subordination sometimes took on the form of effacement. The paper also explores the sociological, cultural and anthropological factors at play in the construction of nineteenth century compositions of this sort.
From the Paper "The manner in which a society depicts the physical form of people from different ethnic or racial backgrounds says a great deal about that society. To wit, it has sometimes been remarked that art is a window into the human soul. If this is indeed the case, then photos from a particular period in history capture that period - its assumptions, ideals, self-perceptions, even hopes - in a way that is very difficult to surpass. This paper looks at a Civil war picture taken from 1864 which captures the African-American form in a manner that reveals - in striking detail - the reification and assumptions of American society during the middle of the nineteenth century."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that American history has been written in the spirit of white patronage. The writer maintains that certain facts about this country's history have been conveniently forgotten in order to emphasize the glory and righteousness of the white man and the helplessness and in-consequence of the black man. While this may be an unconsciously made decision, it is a decision that has been made nonetheless. The writer points out that in no single event is this idea of white dominance more clear than in the popular mythology surrounding the Civil War. The writer notes that there is no mention in this country's popular history of the North's profit off of slavery during the 1860s, or the region's ambivalence toward newly freed slaves. Further, the writer points out that there is certainly little or no mention of the thousands of black men who served in the Union army, or of the poor treatment that they received at the hands of white officers. The writer concludes that by whitewashing history, by denying blacks their proper place in history, the textbooks and teachers of this and previous eras are teaching the in-consequence of those blacks in their own history.
From the Paper "A huge and enduring misconception of the Civil War period is that the evil slave traders stayed in the South while the North sounded the call of freedom. It was in fact the northern colonies that would introduce African slaves to the colonies, and it was also the northern colonies that would continue to supply the South with slaves until the Civil War. Until well past the Revolutionary War, up to 10% of New England's population was made up of slaves. After it was decided by most northern colonies to abolish the practice, they did so in a gradual fashion, freeing the children that would be born to their slaves, but not the parents of those children. Long after this process of gradual liberation was completed, the North still reaped large profits from the slave trade, in the form of their ships. Up until the Civil War ended, 35,000 trips were made to bring slaves to the Americas, and although Northern complicity often existed only so far as stock ownership was concerned, it still existed. It was only after the Civil War was finished that the North decided to forget it's unfortunate history, and it is this collective amnesia that has been passed down to this day."
Abstract This paper explains that, during the blackcivil rights movement, some leaders favored integrationism, which meant that these activists were willing to work with sympathetic whites to achieve their goal of civil rights. The paper points out that other leaders favored African-American nationalism, which meant the opposite of integrationism. The paper relates that, during the first ten years, the movement was mainly integrationist, as modeled by Martin Luther King Jr. King, who favored using non-violent methods, such as sit-ins, to oppose discrimination. The author continues that, by around 1966, the Black Power movement with activists, such as Malcolm X, who favored black self-determination, was growing. The paper states that the African-American nationalism has been accused of being in favor of black supremacy.
From the Paper "There is a sad but interesting common factor that is shared by the integrationist movement and African American Nationalism. Although integrationism was much more moderate than African American Nationalism, both were threatening enough to some people in the USA that the most prominent leaders of both movements were assassinated. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee; while Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965, at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem."
Tags: whites sit-in, malcolm x, black history, king
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses and analyzes the topic of James Meredith. Specifically, the paper discusses James Meredith's role in the Black Student Movement and the Civil Rights Movement. According to the paper, in 1962, James Meredith attempted to enter the University of Mississippi to study law. After a long and very bitter struggle he became the first black student in the history of the school.
From the Paper "During Meredith's fight to enter Ole Miss, he became more involved in the overall fight for civil rights, as well. In 1966, his first memoir, Three Years in Mississippi was published, and he undertook the Meredith Mississippi March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi. After only two days, someone shot him and left him by the side of the road as dead. The attack so angered other black civil rights groups that they banded together and finished the walk in his honor. Stokely Carmichael, one of the marchers, came up with the term "black power" during the march, and this was the beginning of the term associated with the black struggle to end oppression and prejudice. Thus, many credit Meredith as the father of the movement, although he did not coin the phrase. Meredith rejoined the march for a few days, and has always been an outspoken critic of nonviolence. However, his civil rights activities waned after the march. Meredith went on to study and teach abroad for several years. He lectures, has taught, and is now the President of the Meredith Institute, Inc., a non-profit organization that teaches Black Americans the importance of language and how to read, write, and speak the English language. "
Tags: Air, Force, civil, rights, education, university, Mississippi, black, power
Abstract This paper examines the history behind the principal federal civil rights legislation passed in the 1960s, primarily the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (the '64 Act) and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (the '65 Act) and their implications. The '64 and '65 Acts were enacted during the administration of President Lyndon Johnson and represented a culmination of a long struggle by the civil rights movement for recognition of the legal and political rights of African Americans. It analyzes how they revolutionized politics in the South and helped that region participate more fully in the nation's progress. It also looks at how blacks, other ethnic and racial minorities and women benefited greatly from the civil rights legislation of the 1960s, but how efforts since then by African Americans to participate more fully in American society have largely been thwarted.
Outline
Background
Origins of the '64 Act
Passage of the '64 Act
Johnson's Motivations
Legislative Strategy
Effect of the '64 Act
The Voting Rights Act of 1965
Civil Rights Laws and White Backlash
Conclusion
From the Paper "Further crises followed. The Kennedys negotiated with Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett to ensure the peaceful entry of James Meredith as a student at Mississippi University in September 1962, but they were forced to send in 500 marshals. After the marshals were overwhelmed by a local mob and had suffered 160 wounded, JFK sent in 5,000 Army troops. Both Kennedys felt that they had been double-crossed by Barnett. Weisbrot said "the events at Ole Miss did much to reshape President Kennedy's thinking about race, politics, and his role in civil rights reform." Next, anti-segregation demonstrations took place in Birmingham in the spring of 1963 where nationwide television audiences witnessed the brutality used by Police Chief Bull Connor on unarmed civil rights demonstrators."
An examination of three documents from the Antebellum era (1820 to the beginning of the Civil War in 1865), which present the social, as well as legal, perspective that slavery was beneficial.
Abstract This paper summarizes three documents, which explain the social and political feelings of this era. It shows that the first is an article by a prominent doctor, Dr. Samuel Cartwright, entitled, "Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race". It was his purpose to validate the ownership of slaves as a means of providing shelter and industry to a race handicapped to such a degree that it could not prosper on its own. It then explains that the second document is the opinion of Justice Taney in the "Dred Scott v. Sanford" case of 1857. Here, it is legally determined that blacks of the pre-Civil War era do not have the rights of an American citizen. Finally, it discusses the third document, which is a speech presented to the United States Senate on March 4, 1858, by James Henry Hammond, wherein he argues that the black race is a slave race through natural law. All of these documents were written in the belief that slavery was a legitimate social institution based on the inferiority of the black race.
From the Paper "The Southern plantation system was socially and economically dependent on slave labor to continue. The chattel slave was owned and had absolutely no rights, including the right to life, that was not controlled by the owner. The plantation owners did not consider slave labor to be 'free' inasmuch as the care and upkeep of the slaves was their responsibility.
In the 1840's a physician, Samuel Cartwright, created a psychiatric diagnosis called "drapetomania? that was specific to slaves - most notably found among freed slaves. The disorder was characterized by "a partial insensibility of the skin, and so great a hebetude of the intellectual faculties, as to be like a person half asleep, that is with difficulty aroused and kept awake. It differs from every other species of mental disease, as it is accompanied with physical signs or lesions of the body discoverable to the medical observer, which are always present and sufficient to account for the symptoms" (Internet source). The diagnosis is, of course, specific to the times. It was a way that the institute of slavery could be rationalized - by 'blaming the victim' - for the natural reactions to an unnatural situation."
Abstract This paper explains that despite the fact that by about 1800, every state north of Delaware abolished slavery; the south grew far more partial to their slavery-run economy. The author points out that although the free black population rose from eight percent to thirteen percent of the African-American population, most of the free blacks lived in the northern states where they had much success setting up black schools, churches and communities but still experienced many limitations such as not being permitted a U.S. Passport, work for the government, claims on public lands or sitting next to white people in church. The paper relates that, after the Civil War, newly freed African-Americans started to act on their freedom, which meant the ability to move around hence the reuniting of families, the chance to open schools and churches and the opportunity to interact in politics.
From the Paper "The first Africans to land on American soil arrived in Virginia in 1619. In Europe, the Portuguese and the Dutch had already been dealing in the African slave trade, traveling back and forth across the Atlantic for over half a century. Shortly afterward the French and the British took over this trade industry. America was growing and was in need of cheap labor for economic, geographic, social and agricultural reasons, especially in the southern states. In the south, the climate and soil was very conducive to farming and the plantation owners needed a great number of men to work the land consequently making it the majority importer of slaves."
Abstract This book discusses major themes and the author's methodology in labor and ethnic studies historian Michael Honey's 1999 book "Black Workers Remember". The author points out the African-American struggle for unionization and civil rights and the connection between these two movements. The paper relates the Memphis sanitation workers strike and the impact of globalization on the employment of blacks.
From the Paper "In "Black Workers Remember: An Oral History of Segregation Unionism and the Freedom Struggle", labor and ethnic studies historian Michael Keith Honey records the history of southern African American workers and their struggle for both a living wage and the equal rights promised by the U. S. Constitution. Relying heavily on oral histories or testimonies, Honey's book covers the period from the ...s through the ...s and centers on Memphis Tennessee. Many themes are presented in this excellent, often poignant, book that contends the labor of black ..."
Abstract This paper examines how, in May 1961, an interracial group called the Freedom Riders decided that it was time to test President Kennedy's promise to go through with his allegation to enforce the Supreme Court's decision. It looks at how the Freedom Riders were very influential in their fight for the civil rights of black citizens and how their journey by bus helps explain how the blacks were still being treated, their determination to gain equality, and how they finally achieved their purpose.
Outline
The Freedom Riders: An Introduction
The Beginnings of the Freedom Riders' Mission
Resistance and Violence in Alabama and Mississippi
The Contributions of the Freedom Riders
From the Paper "The cruelty that the Freedom Riders were subjected to that day is only the tip of the iceberg of how the blacks were treated. The Riders were only trying to exercise the rights to be able to travel without discrimination that was granted to them, and they were insulted beyond decency and hit with fists and pipes by men, women, and children. The blacks were supposed to be protected and have some equality, yet they were not treated anywhere close to how they should have been. After what happened in Birmingham, all bus drivers refused to drive them any further, and without any other choice, the Freedom Riders decided to fly to New Orleans and to safety."
