Abstract This paper explains that the impact of bioterrorism upon the United States of America is difficult to exaggerate. The author points out that bioterrorism has led to a more massive and unwieldy state apparatus, to unprecedented integration between various appendages of the state, to heightened fears and insecurities and to a new approach to immigration. The paper suggests that continued vigilance is essential to continued safety.
From the Paper "Bioterrorism has emerged as one of the catch-phrases of the new millennium. Without question, how America grapples with this frightening reality of twentieth century warfare will go a long way towards determining the safety of everyday Americans in the years to come. This paper will outline how the persistent threat of bio-terrorism has changed the everyday lives of Americans, what steps are being taken by authorities to lessen the prospect of calamitous attacks on American civilians, and the manner in which disparate government agencies are working together to ensure that the biological or chemical equivalent of September 11 , 2001, never takes place. The effect of bioterrorism upon Americans has been significant."
Abstract This paper discusses bioterrorism and the dangers it brings to living organisms. It examines the history of bioterrorism from ancient times to the twentieth century and explains that it wasn't until the 1930s that the real science of bioterrorism really began to blossom. The writer looks at the research done on biological warfare, with special reference to the anthrax and botulinum toxins. The writer also believes that the technical community has the greatest challenge in developing biological agent detection both for the battlefield, and for civilian use. The writer concludes that the more we search for answers to counter the effects of bioterrorism the worse is gets.
From the Paper "Throughout history, warriors and terrorists have used a wide range of tactics and
techniques to help defeat their enemy on and off the battlefield. These weapons of war
have evolved from throwing rocks and sticks at each other to the unthinkable weapons of
mass destruction called bioterrorism. You may ask yourself, what is bioterrorism? The
Center for Disease Control defines bioterrorism as the intentional or threatened use of bacteria, fungi, or toxins from living organisms to produce death or disease in humans, animals, or plants and involves intimidation of nations or people to accomplish political or social ends. (CDC 2005) In ancient times, archers shot arrows at their enemies that were dipped in blood from dead and decomposing bodies, while others had the feces of animals smeared onto the tips to cause severe infection after entering the body."
Tags: disease, control, anthrax, war, crimes, microbiology, FBI
Abstract This paper describes the dangers of Anthrax as a weapon in chemical / biological warfare. The paper outlines different types of Anthrax and discusses the long term effects it could have in a war of bioterroism. The writer explains the different ways Anthrax enters and affects the body. The writer provides a brief history on bioterrorism and concludes the paper with assurances that bills have been passed allowing the U.S. government to spend billions on anti-bioterrorism.
From the Paper "Bioterrorism is known to have been in effect as early as 6th century B. C. when the Assyrians attempted to poison the wells of their enemies using a substance known as "rye ergot" (History of Bioterrorism, PG, 2002). Throughout the years bioterrorism has been a constant threat, as armies have been known to hurl the bodies of diseased soldiers into enemy camps. Feces and even infected fleas have been used to spread plague and malaria into enemy quarters. As early as 1763 Native Americans were given blankets and cloths that had been infected with smallpox (History of Bioterrorism, PG, 2002)."
Tags: biological, cutaneous, deadly, gastrointestinal, inhalational, terrorists, widespread, warfare, terror
Abstract The paper examines the role science is playing in detecting the use of biological agents by terrorists and discusses how it is evident that its major task is to develop and improve scientific devices that can detect biological agents such as anthrax, ricin, botulinum, smallpox and others. The paper explains how these biological agents could inflict horrific casualties and there is little if any defense against them except to detect them as quickly as possible, isolate the area and quarantine anyone who may have been exposed to them. In order to fully understand the vital role of science in dealing with bioterrorism threats, the paper states that it is necessary to initially discuss the nature of bioterrorism attacks.
Abstract This paper describes the categories of biological agents that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has identified as posing a significant bioterrorism risk. The paper points out that botulinum toxin produced by the bacteria clostridium botulinum has been tagged by the CDC as being in the highest risk category because it is easily transmitted from one person to another, possess high morbidity rates and has the potential for widespread panic and public chaos. The paper relates that there is a great challenge to health authorities in distinguishing a naturally-occurring botulism outbreak and one that is the result of a terrorist attack because the botulism symptoms from either scenario are the same.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Clostridium Botulinum and the Botulinum Toxin
Botulism: Background, Pathogenesis and Treatment
Botulism and Bioterrorism Challenges to Preventing a Botulinum Bioterrorist Attack
Conclusion
From the Paper "Biological agents used in bioterrorism attacks are commonly found in nature but are often scientifically manipulated in order to increase their potency, their antimicrobial resistance and their dispersal factor. In their campaign to sow their seeds of terror, terrorists have increasingly turned to biological warfare because unlike traditional tactics such as nuclear warfare, biological weapons are inconspicuous and often invisible to the human eye. They remain undetected by authorities during their latent or incubation periods as they slowly infect the majority of the population."
Tags: category, clostridium botulinum, nature, dispersal rate, incubation periods
Abstract The paper discusses how preventing and responding to terrorism are two issues that are now critical aspects of the United States' security and political landscape. The paper attempts to investigate why the water systems of large cities are vulnerable to terrorists' attacks. The paper also evaluates why the water system in the city of Chicago is vulnerable to terrorist attacks. The paper discusses how such an attack would most likely be unsuccessful because of detection methods, dilution, chlorination and the filtration processes but there is still an element of danger. The paper looks at the theories of bioterrorism and bioterrorism defense.
Outline:
Introduction
Literature Review
Water Facilities in Large Metropolitan Areas
What Will Happen if Terror Attacks Do Occur?
Protecting These Systems
Chicago Water Systems Vulnerability
Theoretical Framework
Competing Hypothesis
From the Paper "Biological and chemical warfare are particular concerns for the American government as it relates to protecting the citizenry. America has already experienced small scale biological attacks with the anthrax attacks that occurred following the terrorists attacks of September eleventh. Anthrax is a naturally occurring substance that causes severe respiratory problems and can result in death. The previous Anthrax attack affected only a few people; however a large scale attack using anthrax or some other biological agent could be catastrophic. The impact of such an attack could have devastating consequences as millions of Americans could be left dead or seriously ill."
Abstract The paper examines the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and looks at how the United States' information systems fail to meet the tests of universality and of platform and operating systems compatibility. The paper then looks at how border security and the war against bioterrorism have been facilitated by cutting-edge technologies that are compromised by the same interoperability issues. The paper concludes that the failings of the DHS is proof that a more streamlined, centralized data-gathering and data-exchange process is needed.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Information Systems and Standards Universality, Oversight and Compatibility: the Case of the United States Government
Federal Information Systems and the Border
A brief Look at Federal information Systems and Bioterrorism Future Vision
Conclusions/Summary
From the Paper "A Government Accountability Office Study conducted in June of 2005 found many problems with the information system in place at the Department of Homeland Security - problems that clearly reveal logistical and planning problems that must be overcome both in the public and in the private realms if the terrorist threat is to be appreciably reduced. To begin with, if the DHS is to be held up as an example, the United States government has done a desultory job of putting in place universal information security practices and controls. Things like a proper risk assessment, security plan, a regime of security tests and evaluations, remedial action plans, and a structure for the continuity of operations have (in one way or another) fallen short of expectations or have simply been absent (Government Accountability Office, 2005)."
Abstract The recent concerns regarding bioterrorism have given rise to calls for a mass vaccination program against smallpox. The Bush Administration has floated plans to administer the smallpox vaccine to health care and military workers to protect against a smallpox outbreak in the United States. This paper examines the symptoms and morbidity rates of smallpox and studies the arguments both for and against a mass smallpox vaccination campaign.
From the Paper "Gilmore (2003) further notes that past statistics show that the smallpox vaccine poses a much higher level of risk compared to other vaccinations. For every million people vaccinated in the past, 14 to 52 persons experienced severe reactions. Furthermore, 1-2 people out of every 1 million who received the smallpox vaccine died. Authorities in the United States are further studying the possibility of a causal relationship between smallpox vaccination and subsequent deaths due to previously undiagnosed cardiac disease."
Abstract This paper discusses anthrax, an acute infectious disease that came into the limelight recently due to the anthrax attacks in the United States in the weeks following the September 2001 terror attacks, causing widespread panic. The paper includes information on how the disease is caused, types of anthrax, symptoms of the disease and its treatment. The paper also presents information on the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States and examines what makes anthrax a good bioterrorism agent.
Outline
Introduction
How is Anthrax Caused?
Bacillus Anthracis
Types of Anthrax and Ways in Which it can Infect Humans
Treatment
Anthrax as a Biological Weapon
The 2001 Anthrax Attacks
From the Paper "Anthrax is caused by the bacterium 'Bacillus anthracis' that is highly lethal in its virulent form. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic animals, but it can also occur in humans when they are exposed to infected animals, tissue from infected animals, or high concentrations of anthrax spores. Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium which causes anthrax, is rod-shaped and about 1 by 6 micrometres in size. It was the first bacterium ever to be shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1877. The bacteria normally rest in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. When ingested by a plant eating animal, the bacteria starts to multiply and eventually kills the animal. They even continue to reproduce in the carcass but eventually revert back to the dormant spore state when they run out of nutrients. ("Bacillus anthracis.")"
Abstract This paper describes the new and infinitely terrifying form of arsenal, biological weapons. The paper examines the efforts being done by governments to prepare against bioterrorism. The paper explores how exactly a virus works and why the effects of some infections are so devastating. The paper also highlights what makes humans susceptible to certain viruses and pathogens and why treatment doesn't always work.
From the Paper "Despite vaulting bounds in medical health, many of us live with a nagging (although not completely irrational) fear of viruses, bacteria, and other nuisances. Since the anthrax hysteria that followed in the wake of the 9/11 tragedy, Americans have been on the alert for signs of bioterrorism. Some fear that the gas curling through our vents contains airborne microbes or that our water reservoirs are teeming with lethal spores. From religious militant to the merely unhinged, people have resorted to violence to wreak havoc - using handguns, bombs, and recently, jetliners."
Abstract This paper discusses the potential threat of bioterrorism and how it could be best addressed in the State of Virginia by a family nurse practitioner. It expands on measures which include participating as a volunteer member of the Virginia Medical Emergency Corp and being active in syndromic surveillance models being utilized throughout the United States.
From the Paper "The Commonwealth of Virginia is unique in its heritage, unique in its history and unique in its people and culture. As such, it represents a unique set of challenges relative to threats of bioterrorism. Virginia's combination of urban, suburban and rural communities combined with its proximity to the capital of the United States make Virginia both a high risk state for bioterrorism and a difficult state to coordinate preventative measures or to effect emergency action as may be necessary. As a Family Nurse Practitioner in Virginia, I believe there are significant contributions that I can make. My proposed role relative to bioterrorism as an Advanced Practice Family Nurse Practitioner are twofold and both focus on the "back to basics" indicators between state and local areas; working as a volunteer at the state level while concentrating on the local area. I first believe I have the responsibility to be a volunteer medical ..."
Abstract In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, anthrax, a deadly chemical agent, began showing up in many areas of the East Coast. The nation came to fear anthrax, but was that fear justified? The paper argues that while the anthrax outbreaks caused relatively few deaths, the use of anthrax as a weapon of bioterrorism should be anticipated with fear and dread. The agent is deadly and the vaccines against it are controversial at best. The paper shows that anthrax is indeed a weapon of mass destruction if it falls into the wrong hands.
From the Paper "Perhaps the most disturbing aspect of anthrax is its longevity. The spores can lie dormant for literally years, but they can still infect a person after years of exposure to the elements. Researchers know this because of past studies conducted on the disease and the spores that cause it. For example, British researchers studied the disease and its affect on animals for about a year in an isolated Scottish bog during World War II. During their studies, they exposed sheep to various types of weapons containing anthrax spores, including bombs, bullets, and other dispersants."
Abstract Anthrax, which is caused by a spore-forming bacterium called Bacillus anthracis, actually occurs as an acute and infectious disease, and is generally found in animals, both wild and domestic. This paper examines how the disease spreads, its different forms, its symptoms and its prevention. In particular, it looks at how it is used as part of bioterrorism.
From the Paper "Anthrax is termed a zoonotic disease (meaning that it is acquired by people from animals) (Brachman & Friedlander, 1994). The earliest accounts of humans getting this disease are thought to be caused by anthrax dating from the Fifth Egyptian Plague, which was 3500 years ago (Brachman & Friedlander, 1994). During the Middle Ages, anthrax, which was then called "The Black Bane," actually killed very large numbers of people and animals over in Europe. At that time, there was no understanding of the disease, and there was no vaccine (Brachman & Friedlander, 1994). Much like the bubonic plague, people simply did not seem to understand how the disease worked or how they should prevent it."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the terrorist attacks on the United States, September 11, 2001 lead to the development of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Agency was formed in 2002 to organize and manage collaboration efforts of local, state, and other federal agencies to develop bioterrorism-related food regulations. The writer points out that the federal agencies that are involved with developing and implementing bioterrorism-related food regulations include the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Food Safety and Inspection Services (FSIS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). In this project the writer analyzes the collaborating agencies and evaluates the effectiveness of the regulations and programs used to protect the food supply of the United States. The writer concludes that the Food and Drug Administration, The United States Department of Agriculture, and the Food Safety and Inspection Services along with the White House and other government agencies have collaborated and developed several comprehensive prevention and response programs to address the incident of a food-related bioterrorism attack on the United States.
Outline:
Introduction
Risk of Agro Terrorism
Types of Agro Terrorism
Historical Food-Related Bioterrorism Food and Drug Administration Response
Food Safety and Inspection Services (FSIS) Response
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Food Safety and Inspection Service is an infrastructure of the United States Department of Agriculture. The Food Safety and Inspection Service and the United States Department of Agriculture work together with the White House and the Department of Homeland Security to coordinate food security in the United States. (Food Safety Inspection Service 2003) The Food Safety and Inspection Services ensure that meat, poultry, and egg products are safe and the United States Department of Agriculture ensures the safety of the remaining food products. Prior to September 11, 2001, the main focus of the FSIS was unintentional harm to eggs, meat and poultry, now the focus has shifted to intentional acts of harm to the food supply.
"The FSIS and the USDA along with the existing food safety framework in place, accomplishments by the agency have been swift and targeted. The following accomplishments have been documented for the collaborative efforts of the FSIS and the USDA."
Abstract In this in-depth examination of the subject, the author of this paper offers a clear definition of global terrorism. He studies the change in America's views on the subject and lists basic concerns of the effect global terrorism might have on the world and on the United States. The paper analyzes the direct and indirect dimensions of risks to U.S. interests and the patterns of global terrorism. It touches on September 11th, effects on the business sector and future plans to fight global terrorism. Finally, it examines the topic of bioterrorism and the UN response.
From the Paper "The U.N. cited America as the "most generous nation in the world in responding to emergencies and crises everywhere else." Perhaps that is why the world grieved and suffered along with Americans when terrorism hit U.S. soil. Nearly half the world joined the U.S. in its international war against terrorism. However, it is important to understand the thin line between "global terrorism" and global organized crime.
According to the U.N., in many important respects, terrorism is a problem to be tackled by law-enforcement agencies, in cooperation with military forces; its magnitude can be brought down to "tolerable" levels, but it can never be totally "defeated", just as we cannot have an absolutely crime-free society; and it is part of the growing trend toward the lowered salience of the State in the new security agenda that emphasizes human as well as national security. "
