Abstract
This paper first explains that the major schools of thought that form the foundation of psychology are the psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive perspective and evolutionary perspectives. Next, the author investigates the different assumptions of the causes and effects of various psychological disorders and the associated unique approaches to treatment from each of these schools of thought. The paper also reports that biopsychology, or the biological boundary of psychology, studies the physical basis of memory, emotion and stress.

From the Paper
"The behaviorist perspective, or behaviorism, is a branch of psychology that that explores the ways in which observable behavior is learned and shaped by the environment (stimuli). Though John B. Watson was considered to be the founder of behaviorism, B.F. Skinner was perhaps the most influential to the development of the behaviorist perspective. But, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, conducted one of the best well-known experiments in behaviorism, which happened to be accidental. "

Tags:psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, evolutionary, biopsychology

Abstract
The paper is a study of grieving behaviour between men and women. The paper states that there has been relatively little research on the ways in which biological differences between men and women interact with the psychological/sociocultural influences relevant to bereavement. This paper correlates these two areas of research into a biopsychological model by examining disruption in biological regulatory processes following traumatic events and the significance of these events for physical and psychological functioning as they differ between males and females.

Outline:
Introduction
Background
Cultural Differences in Grieving
Gender Differences in Grieving
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The psychological correlates specific to twin and sibling loss have been less well studied by bereavement researchers than those associated with parental, child, and spousal loss. Some analyses have, however, underlined the impact of twin and sibling loss as significant and enduring (Bank & Kahn, 1982; Segal, Wilson, Bouchard, & Gitlin, 1995). Increased focus on opposite-sex twins and siblings promises to yield informative findings of both theoretical and practical significance with respect to gender differences in grief, as well as differences in age at loss and cause of death. Greater attention to personality characteristics, the previous sibling relationship, and life crises that may have preceeded the death is also needed."

Tags:grief, culture, sorrow, distress

Abstract
The paper discusses how the biological reaction to stress in the normal human is derived from the evolutionary legacy that enabled life to react and adapt to adverse stimuli, and asserts that as life evolved from single-celled to multiple-celled organisms, this adaptive system became more complex, culminating in the development of specialized organ systems that coordinate the body's immediate and long-terms reactions to stress. The paper explains that among the organ systems involved in coordinating the stress changes are the central nervous system, particularly the autonomic nervous system (which includes the adrenal glands) and the endocrine system (which also involves the adrenal glands).

From the Paper
"The biological reaction to stress in the normal human is derived from the evolutionary legacy that enabled life to react and adapt to adverse stimuli. As life evolved from single-celled to multiple-celled organisms, this adaptive system became more complex, culminating in the development of specialized organ systems that coordinate the body's immediate and long-terms reactions to stress. Among the organ systems involved in coordinating the stress changes are the central nervous system, particularly the autonomic nervous system (which includes the adrenal...)"

Tags:anxiety, depression, biopsychology

Abstract
Extraordinary musical talent is very rare; however a more uncommon talent, even among musicians, is absolute pitch. The paper explains that absolute pitch, also known as perfect pitch, is the ability to accurately identify pitches by name or produce a particular pitch without musical context or reference to another tone. The origins of absolute pitch have not been fully explored, but it is certain that genetic, environmental and biological factors all play a part in the development of this ability. The paper argues that more research should be done to separate the components affecting absolute pitch, as it can give valuable insight to the nature versus nurture debate.

From the Paper
"Another study used PET scanning to compare the cerebral blood flow of absolute pitch possessors to control musicians without absolute pitch. During pitch labeling tests, absolute pitch possessors demonstrated activation of the left posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex, an area related to learning associations. During interval-judgment tests, control subjects showed activation in the left posterior dorsolateral cortex and right inferior frontal cortex, an area of the brain thought to be used as working memory."

Tags:biopsychology, neurology, psychology

Abstract
This paper reviews two articles: "How Americans Are Living Dangerously", relating to how Americans perceive risks and the second article "The Science of Anxiety" dealing with the phenomenon of anxiety and its effects. The author explains that both articles were written for a readership of lay people unfamiliar with the field of health psychology, and points out that although the articles are informative, they lack credibility of an article from more specialized publications.

From the Paper
"The article is comprehensive in that it compiles the opinions of many experts in risk assessment. It is a multispecialty field, comprised of neuroscientists, psychologists, risk consultants and other academicians in various fields related to risk. Direct quotations from these experts are used often to emphasize points made by the author. The article is written in a type of "inverted triangle" format used such that it attracts attention before discussion of facts in a logical manner such that the reader is engaged by both anecdotes and facts, interwoven to provide a flow that all readers are accustomed to. Technical jargon is explained by examples and are easily comprehendible, perhaps more so than through the use of the strictly scientific (but otherwise precise) definition. This is in stark contrast to the structured format adhered to by the academe, particularly journal articles. This is understandable, since laymen reading this article can absorb the essence of the article rather than details which may be of trivial significance to them.
"While the article is informative and presents much insight into the concept of risk, the article's target audience is left with "just enough" information to be able to process and assimilate it. While the information it provides is indeed useful in promoting well-being, there is a superficial essence to it. This is understandable, since anyone with a more formal educational background would have the tendency to scrutinize this - and any - article relevant to his field of study. In this case, while facts are presented on after the other, there is an unsettling paucity of alternative, negating or even contradictory explanations."

Tags:biopsychological, assessment, scientific, depression