Abstract
This paper explains that nature acts as a pharmacy, offering us products, from the forest pharmacy and the pharmacy below water, with which we can heal ourselves: For example, aspirin, quinine, cyclosporins, and penicillin. This paper details the techniques that are available to researchers, to collect samples of natural products from the wild in a systematic manner, to extract compounds from these samples, to isolate the biologically-active compounds within these extracts, to characterize the biologically-active compounds chemically in terms of their structure, to evaluate the biologically-active compounds biologically, to determine potentially useful therapeutic effects and finally the methodology necessary to take these compounds to clinical trial. The author stresses the importance of finding new and more effective drugs to fight against bacterial infections and cancer. Outline.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Nature's Pharmacopeia.
The Isolation of Biologically-Active Compounds and their Extraction Identification: Techniques
Introduction
Chemical Extraction
Biological Evaluation
Chemical Analysis
Chromatography
Solid Phase Extraction
Paper Chromatography
Thin Layer Chromatography
Flash Chromatography
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
Central Counter Current Chromatography
Determining the Chemical Structure of Compounds Isolated by Chromatography
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Mass Spectrometry
Drug Development
Examples of the Isolation and Identification
An Example of Extraction, Isolation and Chemical Characterization of Biologically-Active Compounds from Larch Wood
Biologically-active Compounds from Marine Organisms
What Compounds Have Been Isolated From Marine Organisms?
Biologically-Active Anti-Cancer Compounds Testing for Human Safety
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Chromatography is the process whereby two or more compounds or ions are separated through the distribution of the compound or ion between two phases, one that is mobile and the other which is stationary. These two phases can be of any combination: liquid-liquid, solid-solid, solid-liquid or gas-liquid, gas-gas, or gas-solid. There are many specific techniques for chromatography, some of which will be described below, and all follow the same basic principles. All forms of chromatography involve a rapid and dynamic equilibrium of molecules between the two phases, either free " mobile - or absorbed " stationary. Molecules will constantly move back and forth between the free and absorbed states, with millions of molecules absorbing and desorbing every second. The equilibrium between these states depends on three factors: the polarity and size of the molecule, the polarity of the stationary phase, and the polarity of the solvent. Thus, three different variables can be changed in chromatography, which can change the equilibrium between the stationary and mobile phases: this allows one to choose mobile and stationary phases that will separate just about any combination of compounds."

Tags:forest, sea, collection, fungi, spectrometry

Abstract
The paper relates that one of the most contentious controversies in the contemporary scientific debate over gender and sexuality is the degree to which Western cultural and political assumptions have contributed to the scientific representation of the biological "truth" of sexuality and gender. The paper argues that, given that modern science has long been dominated by European and North American institutions, so too has its modelling of sexuality and gender been shaped by Euro-American assumptions regarding such things as heterosexuality, homosexuality, and how sexuality and gender are biologically determined phenomena.

From the Paper
"One of the most contentious controversies in the contemporary scientific debate over gender and sexuality is the degree to which Western cultural and political assumptions have contributed to the scientific representation of the biological "truth" of sexuality and gender. While the popular view of the scientific method and research is that its underlying impetus is the objective research and discovery of the nature of humanity and the world in which we live, a number of scholars and..."

Tags:biology, science, gender

Abstract
This paper explores some of the aspects of the nature versus nurture controversy. The paper studies the complex interplay between genotype and phenotype variables via findings in various disciplines to determine if the genotype (nature aspect) is more influential than the phenotype (the nurture aspect) in determining human behavior.

Background
Literature Review
Methodology

From the Paper
"On the theory that no behavior is more emblematic of a person's behavior than their sexual behavior, which arises from their sexual identity, a study of gender identification and the nature-nurture debate seems a logical one to decide the issue without dissent. (It should be noted, however, that arguably, a case might be made that this is not so, at least in the case of transgendered individuals and those whose behavior includes such contrarian behaviors as cross-dressing.) However, an article by Hausman (2000), dissects the results of enculturation of (and often surgery upon) individuals born with indeterminate physical sexual identifying characteristics. Hausman uses the case of twin sex reassignment to comment on the way gender operates in the nature vs. nurture debate, at least in terms of gender identity."

Tags:homosexuality, duality, enculturation, influences, environmental, anthropology, zoology

Abstract
This paper explores several questions on human nature regarding the long-standing nature vs. nurture debate. The paper examines the pro-nurture position, the beliefs of several well-known philosophers regarding the nature versus nurture question, the implications of the Human Genome Project, and the conclusions of several studies conducted on the link between genetics and the environment.

From the Paper
"The pro-nature side holds that learning or knowledge acquisition, in particular, is in itself a kind of genetic information that is pre-determined by natural selection (Csongradi 2004). Some of the knowledge a person gains may come from interactions or functionally, but what is genetically established will also change or influence the person's experiences. What he learns about the world from the family, school, religion and society in general is something natural and only reinforced over time. This is demonstrated by studies on the pack behavior of animals that grew out of the best chances of procreation and this understanding of the world enhanced both group and individual survival (Csongradi). As in other illustrations, this animal behavior favored the survival of offspring and perpetuated genes that would guarantee that survival. Studies of highly gifted autistic patients also showed that a person can develop extraordinary artistic or scientific talents without requiring nurture."

Tags:hume, descartes, kant, freud, behaviorist, inherited, formation, experience, values, culture

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that bioterrorism is potentially one of the deadlier forms of terrorism because it can be silently introduced amidst large populations to cause untold health problems or large numbers of fatalities as well as create a world-wide panic. The writer maintains that the key to effectively managing and coordinating a biological incident would be early detection and a timely response. The writer then reviews the various detection methods and devices used in biological agent detection and sensing and notes that much progress has been made in the development of these devices however, there is much progress to be made in the future. The writer concludes that enabling health care workers and emergency responders to test the biological agent exposure early in the process of a crisis holds great promise for early detection and eradication of biological agent exposure for the public-at-large in an event or crisis involving biological warfare agents.

Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Biological Detection Equipment
Bio-Detection Process: A Four-Step Process
Sampler/Collector Types
Two Types of Triggers in Bio-Sensing Technologies
Flow Cytometry
Crisis Management
Summary and Conclusion

From the Paper
"The devices are becoming increasingly less expensive and simple to use however, initiatives underway for development of newer devices that are less expensive hold promise in the near future for biological sensing and detection. While the Department of Defense has set out guidelines for Emergency Responders, it is likely that many of the smaller fire departments throughout the country have not yet prepared for this type of crisis. Enabling health care workers and Emergency Responders in testing the biological agent exposure early in the process of a crisis holds great promise for early detection and eradication of biological agent exposure for the public-at-large in an event or crisis involving biological warfare agents."

Tags:eradication, biological, threat, warfare, agent

Abstract
The paper relates that biological psychology can be defined as the "study of behavior and experience in terms of genetics, evolution, and physiology, especially the physiology of the nervous system" (Weiten, 2005, p. 354). The paper explains that through the use of biological psychology there is an attempt made to comprehend human behavior, or more specifically, how human behavior is impacted by biological factors (Weiten, 2005, p. 354). Yet, the paper discusses how biological psychology is not restricted to only human behavior, but includes the study of animal behavior as well and this is accomplished through fields involving and related to biological psychology.

Tags:biological, psych, science

Abstract
The paper posits that the argument that personality traits have a biological and genetic basis is much older than one might assume. The paper notes that though there isn't much love for the notion that biology plays a determining role in human personality development, the idea can be traced back at least as far as Darwin's era when 19th century naturalists began to propose a genetic basis for intelligence. The paper explains that such an argument is generally held in unfavorable light, and this is primarily the result of the misguided assumption that biology is synonymous with fixity. In other words, many psychologists, scientists, and laymen are disturbed by the possibility that human personality is a function of genes--which are largely immutable--rather than the environment--which can be more easily controlled.

From the Paper
"The argument that personality traits have a biological and genetic basis is much older than one might assume. Though there isn't much love for the notion that biology plays a determining role in human personality development, the idea can be traced back at least as far as Darwin's era when 19th century naturalists began to propose a genetic basis for intelligence. However, such an argument is generally held in unfavorable light. This is primarily the result of the misguided assumption that biology is synonymous with fixity. In other words, many psychologists, scientists, and laymen are disturbed by the possibility that human..."

Tags:biology, evolution, personality

Abstract
This paper takes a look at biology. According to the paper, biology covers the entirety of human history as well as the study of all life on the planet Earth. This paper focuses on what and how resources within biology are actually used. The paper assesses their validity based upon their credibility and support within the specific fields.

From the Paper
"There are several types of journals about biology. The two most prominent types are peer-reviewed journals and main-stream journals. In the first case, peer reviewed journals are very scientific in nature and not suited for laymen. They are usually published by professional associations of scientists such as the American Biology Society, and the Public Library of Science. Such literature is usually published on an annual, bi-annual or monthly basis and contains articles that are written by professionals within the field that detail their research. All articles within such journals are peer-reviewed and thus have credibility because they are reviewed for accuracy. Peer reviewed journals take on two particular forms, the first are ones that discipline specific, these journals are usually published through professional associations that specialize in such arenas. For instance, the American Ecology Society publishes a monthly peer-reviewed journal on topics that have to do with ecology. Another type of peer-reviewed journals is national level journals that look at the compilation of research across a spectrum of biological disciplines. Such journals such as the one published by the Public Library of Science, tend to be a panoramic view of the biology discipline, with articles that have to do with the complete breath of research within biology in general. The PLOS Biology journal is published three times a year and is a collection of the most important research within the national trimester. "

Tags:scientific, discipline, biological, research, funding, green-house, gases, technology

Abstract
The paper discusses the evidence for the argument that racism and sexism, like all other attitudes and behaviors, are shaped by factors both genetic and environmental. The paper examines the growing awareness on the part of the academic community of the complex inter-relationships between cultural and environmental factors and biological factors and suggests that, yes indeed, biology or genotypic constitution plays a role in the racist or sexist attitudes individuals may harbor.

From the Paper
"It seems intuitive to argue that racism and sexism, like all other attitudes and behaviors, are shaped by factors both genetic and environmental. For instance, just as it is well-known that genotype-environment interaction plays a key role in human obesity (Perusse & Bouchard, 1999), it is well-known (at least in some circles) that genetic heritage and environmental influences play a key role in the formulation of social attitudes (Abrahamson et al 2002) and in the..."

Tags:biology, racism, sexism

Abstract
This paper explains that Richard Lewontin in his book "Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA" presents a view of science that challenges the popular conception of science as a methodical quest for objective knowledge, which exists outside of the political and social structures of human society. The author points out that the book, which is based on Lewontin's lectures for the 1990 Massey Lectures, focuses on Lewontin's area of scientific specialty biology with a particular emphasis on genetics. The paper relates that the book's component chapters each address and subvert popular myths of science that, for many people, render its practices and practitioners beyond the realm of social and political thought.

From the Paper
"Richard Lewontin, in his book Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA, presents a view of science that challenges the popular conception of science as an methodical quest for objective knowledge that exists outside of the political and social structures of human society. This book, based on Lewontin's lectures for the 1990 Massey Lectures, focuses on Lewontin's area of scientific specialty: biology, with a particular emphasis on genetics. The book's component chapters each address, and subvert, popular myths of science that - for many people - render its practices and practitioners beyond the realm of social and political thought."

Tags:biology, ideology, science